UC-NRLF 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the 
Catholic  School 

By 
T.  LEO  KEAVENY,  A.  M. 

A  Dissertation 


Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the 

Catholic  University  of  America  in  partial 

fulfilment  of  the  requirements  for  the 

Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 


Washington,  D.  C.,  1922 


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»  '  •»  7  V     ?'  'i*  I  *  t  *       %«»•*«*      *     *  * 


To 
THE  RT.  REV.  JOSEPH  F.  BUSCH.  D.  D. 

BISHOP  OP  ST.  CLOUD 
THIS  MONOGRAPH  is  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED. 


COPYRIGHT  1922,  T.  LEO  KEATBNY. 


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CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION    ...........................................  i 

Chapter  I.       The  Priest  in  the  Rural  Parish  ....................  .1 

Chapter  II.     Distinctive  Features  of  The  Catholic  Rural  School..  15 

Chapter  III.  The  Catholic  Rural  School: 

Part  I.      The  Need  ...........................  25 

Part  II.     Organization  and  Supervision  .........  32 

Part  III.  Various  Substitutes   ..................  42 

Chapter  IV.    The  Preparation  and  Qualifications  of  the  Teacher  in 

the  Catholic  Rural  School   .....................  47 

Chapter  V.      The  Curriculum  of  the  Catholic  Rural  School  .......  63 

Chapter  VI.    Examples  of  Catholic  Rural  Schools  ...............  76 

Conclusion   ...................................................  83 

Bibliography  ...............................  *  .................  85 


478675 


INTRODUCTION 

One  of  the  many  serious  questions  that  confront  the 
American  people  is  the  Rural  Problem.  This  problem  has 
direct  reference  to  forty-eight  per  cent  of  our  people  and 
in  an  indirect  way  concerns  the  other  fifty-two  per  cent. 
Gradually  we  have  become  an  urban  nation,  developing 
urban  attitudes  and  interests  and  are,  therefore,  prone 
to  neglect  the  needs  of  our  rural  population. 

The  exodus  of  rural  people  to  industrial  centers 
many  Sociologists,  Economists  and  Churchmen  believe 
to  be  detrimental  to  the  common  good  of  the  nation.  This 
rural  depopulation  is  one  of  the  factors  to  be  noted  in 
the  solution  of  the  Rural  Problem  but  it  is  not  the  prime 
factor.  The  Rural  Problem  is  rather  the  development 
and  maintenance  on  our  fertile  lands  of  a  permanent,  sat- 
isfied, agricultural  population  living  in  harmony  with 
the  best  of  American  ideals.  Defined  in  this  manner, 
the  problem  presents  many  viewpoints,  the  Economic, 
Social  and  Educational.  In  this  dissertation,  we  shall 
consider  the  problem  from  a  Catholic  educational  point 
of  view.  We  believe  that  a  partial,  if  not  a  complete 
solution  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  religion,  based  on  the  love 
of  God  and  neighbor.  This  necessitates  a  short  survey 
of  the  country  church.  Moreover,  in  the  Catholic 
economy,  the  Church  and  the  School  are  intimately  con- 
nected and  one  presupposes  the  other.  In  the  Catholic 
system  of  education  are  found  characteristics  that  are 
not  met  with  in  the  State  system;  these  likewise  must 
be  noted.  Regarding  the  Catholic  rural  school  proper, 
after  calling  attention  to  the  need  for  it,  we  shall  en- 
deavor to  map  out  its  organization  and  supervision  and 
shall  submit  for  consideration  various  substitutes  now 
employed.  Positing  the  existence  of  the  school,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  teacher,  her  preparation  and  qualifications 
will  be  discussed.  The  curriculum  also  enters  into  our 


general  plan  and  at  the  conclusion  of  this  study  are  pre- 
sented a  few  examples  of  Catholic  rural  educational  ef- 
fort to  show  what  may  be  accomplished  to  meet  the  needs 
of  rural  people.  The  aim  in  this  discussion  is  to  discover 
a  means  by  which  the  Rural  Problem  can  be  solved  from 
a  Catholic  educational  viewpoint. 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  PRIEST  IN  THE  RURAL  PARISH 

One  of  the  outstanding  problems  in  American  rural 
life  today  is  to  be  found  in  the  decline  of  the  rural 
church.  Surveys  conducted  in  recent  years  point  to  this 
defect  as  one  of  the  cancers  that  are  eating  the  vitals 
out  of  American  public  life.  Religion  must  enter  into 
the  hearts  of  the  people  or  evil  looms  up  for  the  future. 
It  is,  indeed,  only  too  true  that  the  country  church,  both 
in  Catholic  and  non-Catholic  circles,  is  not  fulfilling  the 
mission  for  which  it  was  intended. 

During  the  last  year  of  President  Roosevelt's  ad- 
ministration the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Country 
Life  was  presented  to  the  American  public.  1  In  this  re- 
port emphasis  was  laid  on  the  necessity  of  a  strong,  deep 
religious  spirit  that  would  permeate  the  entire  rural 
population  and  create  a  contented  and  satisfied  state  of 
mind  in  the  farmer.  "The  forces  and  institutions  that 
make  for  morality  and  spiritual  ideals  among  rural 
people  must  be  energized.  We  miss  the  heart  of  the 
problem  if  we  neglect  to  foster  personal  character  and 
neighborhood  righteousness.  The  best  way  to  preserve 
ideals  for  private  conduct  is  to  build  up  the  institutions 
of  Religion.  The  Church  has  the  greatest  power  of 
leadership.  The  whole  people  should  understand  that 


1.  The  personnel  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life  comprised  the 
following : 
Professor  H.  L.  Bailey,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca, 

N.  Y.,  Chairman; 

Henry  Wallace,  Wallaces'  Farmer:  Des  Moines,  Iowa; 
Kenyon  L.  Butterfield,  President  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Am- 

herest,  Mass.; 

Gifford  Pinchot,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Walter  H.  Page,  of  North  Carolina,  Editor  of  The  World's  Work; 
Charles  S.  Barret,  Union  City,  Ga.; 
William  A.  Beard,  Sacramento,  Cal. 


TT&e  .R^raZ  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 


it  is  vitally  important  to  stand  behind  the  rural  church 
and  to  help  it  to  become  a  great  power  in  developing 
country-life  ideals.  It  is  especially  important  that  the 
country  church  recognize  that  it  has  a  social  responsi- 
bility to  the  entire  community  as  well  as  a  religious  re- 
sponsibility to  its  own  groups  of  people.'?* 

The  Commission  on  Country  Life  stated  expressly 
that  it  did  not  wish  or  intend  to  dictate  religious  policies 
or  to  offer  advice  to  religious  societies  or  sects.  It  stated, 
however,  that  "any  consideration  of  the  problem  of  rural 
life  that  leaves  out  of  account  the  function  and  possi- 
bilities of  the  church,  and  of  related  institutions,  would 
be  grossly  inadequate.  This  is  not  only  because  in  the 
last  analysis  the  country  life  problem  is  a  moral  prob- 
lem, or  that  in  the  best  development  of  the  individual  the 
great  motives  and  results  are  religious  and  spiritual,  but 
because  from  the  purely  sociological  point  of  view  the 
church  is  fundamentally  a  necessary  institution  in 
country  life.  .  ...  The  time  has  arrived  when  the 
church  must  take  a  larger  leadership,  both  as  an  institu- 
tion and  through  its  pastors,  in  the  social  reorganization 
of  rural  life."* 

Any  attempt  to  solve  the  rural  problem,  whether 
from  a  social,  economic  or  political  point  of  view,  must 
of  necessity  embrace  the  religious  side  of  life.  "Society 
can  be  healed  in  no  other  way  than  by  a  return  to  Chris- 
tian life  and  Christian  institutions."4 

Problems  that  so  vitally  affect  the  entire  social  group 
must  be  solved  in  the  light  of  Christian  ideals  of  life. 
"The  cooperation  of  many  agencies  is  required  for  the 
reconstruction  of  rural  society.  Few  writers  on  Eural 
Sociology  neglect  to  assign  to  the  Church  an  important 
place  among  these  agencies,  but  the  Church  itself  must 
aspire  to  a  more  important  place  in  rural  society  than 

2.  Beport  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,  New  York,  p.  27. 

3.  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,  New  York,  p.  138. 

4.  Leo  XIII  Encyclical  "Eerum  Novarum,"  1891. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School          3 

is  usually  allotted  to  it  even  by  the  most  friendly  soci- 
ologists. It  must  do  so  because  its  own  well-being  is  so 
definitely  bound  up  with  rural  life."5 

The  Catholic  Church  does  not  confine  its  activities 
to  functions  that  are  of  mere  social  import;  it  is,  first 
and  foremost,  concerned  with  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
man.  It  is  in  this  regard  that  many  sociologists  writing 
on  the  rural  problem  make  their  mistake.  They  conceive 
the  Church  as  an  organization  ministering  to  the  material 
wants  of  man  primarily  and  secondarily  attending  to 
their  spiritual  needs.  The  Catholic  Church,  if  it  is  to  at- 
tain success  in  rural  communities  must,  in  the  first  place, 
provide  for  the  spiritual  nature  of  man  and  then  look 
to  his  material  wants.  The  future  of  the  Catholic  Church 
is  intimately  bound  up  with  rural  life.  "  Since  the 
country  is  the  prolific  source  of  population  it  is  obvious 
that  the  Church  which  ministers  to  rural  congregations 
is  assured  of  the  future  in  the  city  as  well  as  in  the 
country.  Notwithstanding  the  prolific  increase  of  the 
first  generation  of  city  dwellers,  cities  tend  to  extinction, 
through  a  restricted  birth  rate,  caused  voluntarily  or 
otherwise.  That  the  children  are  actually  in  the  country 
may  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  school  attendance 
with  the  total  population  in  city  and  country  gathered 
from  the  thirteenth  census. 

Rural    Urban 

Total  population 53.7        46.3 

School  attendance 57.4        42.6 

"Even  this  high  percentage  of  children  in  the 
country  probably  does  not  clearly  represent  the  facts 
because  of  the  low  rural  school  attendance.  The  neglect 
of  the  country  by  the  Church  will  mean  not  merely  the 
loss  of  numbers  in  the  future,  but  the  loss  of  leaders 
because  the  country  has  been  the  natural  training  school 

5.  A   program  of  Bural  Action,  Edwin  V.  O'Hara,  L.  L.   D.,   1922, 
Washington,  D.   C.,  p.  4. 


4          The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

of  individualism  and  initiative,  as  it  has  also  been  the 
most  favorable  field  for  the  development  of  religious 
vocations."* 

It  is  patent  therefore  that  the  Church  which  devotes 
its  energies  to  the  development  of  a  rural  population  will 
be  insured  of  its  future.  As  has  been  stated  previously, 
the  "country  is  the  natural  training  school  for  individ- 
ualism and  initiative;"  the  individual  living  in  the  open 
country  has  untold  opportunities  for  the  development 
of  self-reliance  and  initiative.  In  urban  surroundings 
when  need  overtakes  us,  we  immediately  call  for  an  ex- 
pert to  minister  to  us;  but  in  the  country  we  have  to 
rely  on  our  own  resources  and  there  learn  to  work  out 
our  own  salvation  in  meeting  daily  needs.  In  the  country 
is  found  the  remnant  of  the  industrial  home  and  it  is 
due  to  the  educational  opportunities  which  the  industrial 
home  offers  that  self-reliance  and  initiative  are  more 
easily  developed  in  the  country  than  in  the  city.  "The 
constant  presence  of  both  parents  and  of  the  adult  mem- 
bers of  the  home  group  furnished  opportunity  for  con- 
stant instruction  of  the  children  in  all  the  practical  af- 
fairs of  life,  while  the  life-sustaining  industry  carried 
on  within  the  precincts  of  the  home  furnished  material 
for  physical  education  and  sensory-motor  training  of  a 
high  order.  The  will  of  the  child  was  strengthened  and 
his  character  developed  by  the  responsibilities  which  he 
gradually  took  over  and  by  the  atmosphere  of  love  in 
which  he  lived.  The  real  interest  which  called  forth  his 
efforts  acted  as  a  powerful  stimulus  in  developing  his 
various  faculties."7 

The  first  factor  in  any  plan  or  method  of  Catholic 
rural  school  action  is  the  Catholic  priest  living  in  the 
rural  parish.  He  must  be  the  religious  leader  of  the 
community,  but  before  this  is  realized  the  ,  Catholic 

6.  Ibid.  p.  5. 

7.  Shields,  Thomas  E.,  Philosophy  of  Education,  Washington.  D.  0., 
1917,  p.  282. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School          5 

Church  in  general  must  be  made  aware  of  the  importance 
of  the  rural  church.  In  other  words,  the  parish  in  the 
small  town  will  have  to  assume  a  new  status.  Any  state 
of  mind  that  might  lead  one  to  look  upon  the  small 
town  as  a  place  of  probation,  which  must  be  endured 
until  the  day  arrives  when  the  country  pastor  betakes 
himself  to  a  large  city  parish,  should  be  eliminated.  This 
concept  of  the  country  pastorate  as  a  stepping  stone  to 
the  urban  parish  acts  as  a  drawback  and,  having  this 
idea,  the  country  pastor  either  consciously  or  unconsci- 
ously is  hindered  from  putting  forth  his  best  efforts. 
The  individual  priest  cannot  always  be  blamed  because 
in  many  instances  rural  life  is  alien  to  him.  He  has  been 
reared  in  urban  surroundings  and  all  his  natural 
interests  are  centered  there.  Hence  the  bishop  in 
appointing  men  to  such  parishes  should  take  into  con- 
sideration this  fact. 

The  importance  of  the  little  rural  parish  is  some- 
times under-estimated.  In  the  small  parish  the  priest 
represents  the  entire  Catholic  Church;  with  him  its  in- 
fluence rises  or  falls ;  and  thus  the  best  type  of  men 
should  be  selected  for  the  rural  charges.  The  large  city 
parish  can  to  some  extent  depend  on  its  prestige  but  the 
standing  of  a  little  country  parish  depends  on  the  per- 
sonality of  the  pastor.  In  the  open  country  judgment, 
diplomacy,  activity,  progressiveness  and  leadership  are 
the  natural  virtues  required  in  a  priest. 

44  We  must  have  a  complete  conception  of  the  country 
pastorate.  The  country  pastor  must  be  a  community 
leader.  He  must  know  the  rural  problems.  He  must 
have  sympathy  with  rural  ideals  and  aspirations.  He 
must  love  the  country;  he  must  know  the  country  life, 
the  difficulties  that  the  farmer  has  to  face  in  his  business, 
some  of  the  great  scientific  revelations  made  in  behalf  of 


6          The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

agriculture,  the  great  industrial  forces  at  work  for  the 
making  or  the  unmaking  of  the  farmer,  the  fundamental 
social  problems  of  the  life  of  the  open  country."5 

The  rural  pastor  in  America,  although  confronted 
with  difficulties  that  are  unknown  in  urban  surroundings, 
has  advantages  and  opportunities  of  which  his  fellow- 
priest  in  the  large  city  parish  is  deprived.  Since  he 
serves  a  small  number  of  people,  he  is  enabled  to  enter 
into  their  lives  and  become  acquainted  with  their  needs 
and  difficulties.  He  has  the  opportunity  to  become  the 
spokesman  of  the  community  not  only  in  religious  mat- 
ters but  also  in  social  and  economic  affairs  that  affect 
the  district  in  which  he  lives.  In  most  cases  the  people 
look  to  him  for  aid  and  advice.  The  attitude  of  mind  in 
rural  people  offers  a  problem  for  psychology.  They 
transfer  the  priest's  authority  in  matters  religious  to 
matters  social  and  regard  his  word  in  many  instances  as 
final.  Often,  he  is  the  only  individual  in  the  community, 
with  the  exception  of  the  village  doctor,  who  has  received 
a  college  training  and  has  an  understanding  of  Sociology, 
and  Economics.  Many  priests  and  ministers  realize  the 
amount  of  confidence  that  rural  people  have  in  their  pas- 
tors and  respond  to  the  situation,  thereby  aiding  the 
community  not  only  in  a  religious  but  also  in  a  social  and 
economic  way. 

"If  the  Church  were  to  surrender  its  leadership  at 
this  time,  when  so  much  is  at  stake,  it  would  cause  little 
short  of  a  calamity.  The  strong  young  men  and  women 
of  correct  vision  and  initiative  who  are  to  set  up  new 
standards  of  living  in  the  country  community  should  ac- 
quire their  preparation  under  the  inspiration  and  guid- 
ance of  religious  motives.  The  tendency  of  the  day  is 
to  reduce  everything  to  worldly  standards.  The  Church 

8.  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,  New  York,  1911,  p.  144. 


£Jie  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School          7 

has  been  the  saving  force  in  the  habits  and  the  moral 
conduct  of  the  country  people ;  it  must  ever  continue  as 
such.  "2 

Altho  replete  with  opportunities  for  the  zealous 
priest,  country  life  also  presents  obstacles  that  impede 
effective  work.  One  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
small  parish  is  the  question  of  revenue.  In  some  of  the 
country  districts,  especially  in  the  Western  dioceses  of 
this  country,  the  revenue  is  so  scant  that  the  priest  finds 
it  impossible  to  supply  the  necessaries  of  life  under  mod- 
ern conditions.  The  salary  of  the  country  pastor  should 
at  least  be  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  live  according  to 
his  station  in  life.  Curates  in  many  of  the  city  parishes 
are  better  situated  financially  than  country  pastors. 
This  state  of  affairs  is  irksome  and  has  a  depressing 
effect  that  shows  itself  in  the  pastor's  work.  If  the 
country  parish  is  unable  to  support  the  pastor,  and  the 
number  of  people  in  the  community  demands  a  resident 
priest,  the  deficit  should  be  supplied  by  a  central  fund 
furnished  by  the  diocesan  authorities. 

Another  objection  to  country  parishes'  is  their 
isolation.  The  country  priest  is  cut  off  from  his  fellow 
priests  and  unless  he  is  a  student  he  is  very  apt  to  find 
rural  life  unpleasant.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
parish  .that  is  unable  to  erect  or  support  a  parochial 
school.  This  factor  of  isolation  is  rapidly  disappearing 
owing  to  the  advent  of  the  automobile  and  the  perfection 
of  the  means  of  communication. 

Considering  the  opportunities  and  the  difficulties  we 
are  led  to  think  American  rural  life  is  in  dire  need  of 
another  St.  Benedict,  a  man  fired  with  zeal  for  souls  and 
with  a  deep  realization  of  the  vast  possibilities  for  good 
in  American  rural  life.  Many  of  our  bishops,  aware  of 
the  possibilities,  are  endeavoring  to  build  up  Catholic 
rural  communities.  The  late  Archbishop  of  St.  Paul, 


9.  Foght,  Harold  W.,  Rural  Denmark  and  its  Softools,  1915,  p.  334. 


8          The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

John  Ireland,  saw  the  opportunity  of  a  rural  Catholic 
population  and  instituted  settlements  in  various  parts  of 
Minnesota.  Colonies  were  opened  up  at  De  Graff,  Clon- 
tarf  (Swift  County),  Adrian  (Nobles  County),  Avoka, 
Fulda  (Murray  County),  Graceville  (Big  Stone  County), 
Minneota  and  Ghent  (Lyons  County).10  The  above  set- 
tlements, although  started  thirty  and  forty  years  ago, 
still  have  a  strong  Catholic  rural  population.  With  one 
or  two  exceptions,  each  of  these  towns  has  a  large  par- 
ochial school  which  is  a  credit  to  the  zeal  of  the  Catholic 
people. 

Probably  the  greatest  example  of  rural  church  lead- 
ership in  modern  times  is  to  be  found  in  the  person  of 
the  Lutheran  Bishop  Nikolai  Frederik  Severin  Grund- 
tvig  of  Denmark.  The  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
found  Denmark  in  a  deplorable  condition;  the  urban 
trend  was  marked;  landlordism  was  in  the  ascendancy; 
education  was  at  a  standstill ;  in  short,  the  national  life 
of  Denmark  presented  a  sorry  spectacle.  Kef  orms  began 
in  1781,  but  the  Napoleonic  Wars  left  the  nation  politi- 
cally and  financially  stranded.  From  1823  to  1835  more 
than  one-third  of  the  large  estates  were  sold  and 
measures  were  enacted  that  afforded  relief  to  the  nation. 
The  War  of  1864  with  Germany  again  retarded  progress 
but  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Grundtvig  a  new  out- 
look and  philosophy  of  life  was  adopted  by  the  Danish 
people.  He  maintained  that  "Education  must  become 
universal,  practical  and  democratic  and  that  hereafter 
Denmark's  defense  must  be  built  on  the  foundation  of 
broad  intelligence  rooted  in  the  love  of  God  and  home 
and  native  land. ' ni  With  the  assistance  of  Kristen  Kold 
he  built  up  the  system  of  "Folk  High  Schools,"  an  insti- 
tution which  played  the  greatest  part  in  the  rehabilitation 
of  rural  Denmark.  The  first  school  was  opened  in  North 

10.  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  368. 

11.  Foght,  H.  W.,  Rural  Denmark  and  its  Schools,  1915,  New  York. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School          9 

Slesvig  at  Rodding  in  1844.^  Due  to  troublesome  times 
and  the  German  War  of  1864  the  school  was  temporarily 
abandoned  and  after  the  treaty  of  peace  was  moved 
across  the  boundary  line.  Here  under  the  name  of 
"Askov  Folkeshojskole"  it  became  the  pattern  of  all 
other  Danish  Folk  High  Schools.  One  remarkable  feature 
about  this  school  is  to  be  found  in  the  spirit  that  it  incul- 
cates into  the  pupils.  "It  is  claimed  that  they  have  dis- 
covered the  way  to  educate  young  men  back  to  the  farms, 
and  if  this  be  true,  it  is  worth  while  to  note  how  they  do 
it.  Some  main  causes  are  principal  and  some  are  con- 
tributory. In  the  first  place,  all  their  courses  and  ex- 
periments are  associated  with  the  sense  of  the  dignity 
of  labor.  They  teach  not  caste,  nor  self-conscious  pride 
that  looks  for  contrasts  and  distinctions,  but  a  simple 
love  for  the  farm,  the  forest  and  the  sea — the  dignity  of 
the  farmer's  occupation,  let  other  occupations  be  what 
they  may."^  That  the  schools  have  educated  the  indi- 
vidual for  rural  life  can  be  seen  from  a  consideration  of 
the  census. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  rural 
population  numbered  733,000  while  the  urban  population 
reached  196,000.^  When  the  Industrial  Revolution  of  the 
nineteenth  century  set  in,  Denmark  in  common  with  other 
European  countries  experienced  an  urban  trend  and  agri- 
culture suffered  a  distinct  loss.  This  fact  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  graph  which  gives  the  annual  increase 
per  10,000  persons : 

12.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  Danish  Folk  High  Schools,  U.  8.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin,  1914,  Number  22,  p.  15. 

13.  Biennial  Survey  of  Education,  1916-1918,  Vol.  II,  p.  456. 

14.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  Educational  System  of  Eural  Denmark,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1913,  N.  58,  p.  9. 


10        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

Annual  increase  of  population  per  10,000 

Periods                           Capital  Provincial  Rural     Total 

Towns  per  cent 
rural 

1801-1840 48            112  85             79 

1840-1880 190            177  82             72 

1880-1890 325            230  21             67 

1890-1901 259            252  28             61 

1901-1906 152            110  999             66 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  urban  trend  increased  rapidly 
till  the  close  of  the  eighties,  while  in  1890  the  cooperative 
and  educational  enterprises  became  stronger  and  the 
cityward  tide  somewhat  abated.15 

We  would  not  convey  the  impression  that  the  Folk 
High  Schools  and  the  elementary  school  system  of  Den- 
mark were  solely  responsible  for  the  break  in  the  urban 
trend  but  they  were  undoubtedly  the  most  prominent 
factor.  Bishop  Grundtvig  saw  the  possibilities  of  a  rural 
Denmark  and  left  no  stone  unturned  until  his  plan  was 
realized  and  today  Denmark  stands  before  the  world  as 
an  example  in  rural  education  and  farmer's  cooperative 
associations.  From  the  social  viewpoint,  rural  life  in 
Denmark  has  ceased  to  be  the  compliment  of  city  life 
and  isolation  and  lack  of  social  intercourse  have  virtually 
ceased  to  exist.  These  latter  factors  are  due  to  a  large 
extent  to  the  presence  of  a  strong  rural  church,  wrhose 
ministers  understand  the  place  of  the  Church  in  country 
life. 

The  change  brought  ab'out  in  Denmark  contains  in- 
teresting and  significant  lessons  which  the  American 
public  might  well  imitate.  In  1790  only  3.4  per  cent  of 
the  population  of  the  United  States  was  urban;  in  1890 

15.  Ibid.  p.  10. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        11 

it  reached  33.1  per  cent  and  in  1920  the  urban  population 
had  surpassed  the  rural  with  a  percentage  of  51.9  while 
the  rural  had  48.1.** 

In  the  United  States  we  can  expect  that  the  great 
industrial  centers  will  continue  to  increase  but  this  in- 
crease should  not  be  at  the  expense  of  the  rural  communi- 
ties. "We  should  so  organize  our  agricultural  affairs 
that  American  rural  districts  may  hereafter  retain  a 
majority  of  the  rural  minded  people  who  now  live  upon 
the  soil,  as  well  as  their  natural  increase  from  year  to 
year.  This  would  mean  the  gradual  organization  of  a 
natural  agricultural  population,  capable  of  greatly  in- 
creased production.  Then  would  cease  the  beguiling  call 
of  'back  to  the  land'  of  those  who  have  already  moved 
away  from  the  land  and  who  had  just  as  well  stay  away 
because  they  are  not  rural  minded. '  '17 

We  mentioned  above  that  the  Catholic  priest  has  the 
opportunity  of  becoming  the  community  leader,  due  to 
his  position  as  minister  of  the  gospel.  There  we  had  in 
mind  his  attitude  toward  Catholic  and  non-Catholic  inter- 
ests. Now  we  intend  to  present  his  attitude  towards 
organizations  that  concern  only  members  of  his  own 
church.  This  is  an  age  of  organization  and  unless  an 
organization  is  imbued  with  Christian  principles  it  be- 
comes a  menace  to  the  public  welfare.  Cooperative 
agencies  are  multiplying  more  rapidly  today  than  at  any 
other  period  of  the  world's  economic  history  and  it  is 
essential  that  correct  principles  be  incorporated  into 
their  by-laws  and  constitutions.  Much  can  be  accom- 
plished in  these  matters  by  Catholic  farmers  in  coopera- 
tion with  their  pastors.  The  country  priest  can  organize 
associations  to  study  all  phases  of  the  agrarian  question 
and  to  inculcate  Catholic  principles  into  their  cooperative 
enterprises. 

16.  Fourteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  Washington,  1922. 

17.  Foght,  H.  W.,  Bural  Denmark  and  its  Schools,  New  York,  1917. 


12        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

In  speaking  of  the  country  pastor's  attitude  toward 
cooperative  associations,  we  might  mention  another  al- 
lied factor.  This  is  the  need  of  recreational  and  social 
organizations  in  rural  districts.  During  the  past  few 
decades  the  rural  church  has  neglected  this  phase  of 
human  activity  and  consequently  other  institutions  in 
the  form  of  fraternal  organizations  have  assumed  many 
of  the  social  and  even  religious  duties  proper  to  the 
Church.  In  many  rural  communities  these  organizations 
are  the  only  means  by  which  the  people  can  come  to- 
gether and  satisfy  their  instinct  for  social  intercourse. 
"  These  organizations  not  only  compete  with  the  Church 
socially,  but  they  absorb  time,  energy  and  money  that 
might  otherwise,  in  part  at  least,  be  devoted  to  the 
Church;  and  worst  of  all,  they  sometimes  produce  the 
impression  that,  so  far  as  human  welfare  is  concerned, 
they  are  almost  as  serviceable  as  the  Church.'^5 

The  open  country  affords  few  opportunities  for  the 
gratification  of  the  farmer's  social  instinct.  The  Ameri- 
can farmer  is  still  isolated  in  spite  of  the  advent  of 
modern  conveniences  and  the  social  meetings,  in  the  form 
of  husking  bees  and  barn  raisings,  which  featured  the 
pioneer  days,  have  passed  out  of  American  rural  life. 
The  farmer  is  conscious  of  this  isolation  and  his  children 
even  more  so ;  the  country  pastor,  if  he  is  awake  to  the 
possibilities,  is  presented  with  an  opportunity  of  which 
few  city  parishes  can  boast.  In  the  city  youth  frequents 
commercialized  places  of  amusement  but  country  life  is 
singularly  free  from  this,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  country 
Church  to  offer  some  form  of  amusement  that  will  satisfy 
the  social  instinct  of  the  individual.  The  lack  of  recre- 
ational and  social  activities  is  one  of  the  prominent 
causes  of  rural  disintegration ;  man  is  a  social  being  and 

18.  Butterfieia,  Kenyon,  The  Country  Church  and  the  Eural  Problem, 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  1911,  p.  100. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        13 

craves  companionship,  and  if  this  is  not  forthcoming  in 
the  country,  he  seeks  other  places  where  it  can  be  ob- 
tained. -1 
We  have  endeavored  to  present  the  ideal  attitude 
of  the  Catholic  priest  toward  rural  life.  The  rural  prob- 
lem is  not  a  question  of  increased  production  but  rather 
of  the  ' l  establishment  on  the  land  of  a  permanent,  satis- 
fied agricultural  population  made  up  of  the  rural-minded 
people  now  there,  and  their  natural  increase  from  gen- 
eration to  generation.  "19  To  attain  the  solution  the 
Church  and  other  agencies  must  come  to  the  assistance 
of  the  farmer,  because  reform  to  be  effective  must  always 
come  from  within. 

"The  miracle  to  be  wrought,"  says  George  W.  Rus- 
sell (AE),  "is  the  creation  of  a  rural  civilization.  Civ- 
ilization implies  some  measure  of  luxury  and  comfort; 
it  can  only  be  obtained  when  the  community  is  organized 
and  has  the  strength  to  retain  some  surplus  of  wealth 
beyond  what  is  required  for  the  bare  necessities  of  life 
.  .  .because  the  farmer  is  more  isolated  by  the  nature  of 
his  employment  than  any  other  class  he  is  the  last  to 
be  organized,  and  his  industry  has  suffered  more  in 
modern  times  than  any  other.  Mutual  aid,  cooperative 
action — clan  or  communal — were  instinctive  with  ancient 
rural  communities.  This  was  the  true  foundation  on 
which  alone  a  rural  civilization  could  be  built  up."80 

Dr.  Edwin  O'Hara,  of  the  Rural  Life  Bureau  of  the 
National  Catholic  Welfare  Council,  presents  the  rural 
problem  as  "the  problem  of  maintaining  on  the  land  a 
sufficient  population,  effective  and  prosperous  in  produc- 
tion, and  happy  and  content  by  reason  of  a  highly  de- 
veloped social  and  cultural  status."*1 


19.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  Eural  Teacher  and  his  Work,  New  York,  1917. 
p.  35. 

20.  Eussell,  G.  W.,  quoted  in  "A  program  of  Catholic  Eural  Action," 
by  Edwin  V.  O'Hara,  1922,  p.  4. 

21.  Ibid.  p.  4. 


14        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

Any  attempted  solution  of  the  problem  from  a 
Catholic  viewpoint  necessitates  the  realization  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  priest.  With  this  realization  comes  the 
place  of  the  parochial  school  in  rural  life. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        15 


CHAPTER  II 

DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  RURAL  SCHOOL 

Prior  to  the  discussion  of  the  role  of  the  Catholic 
school  in  American  rural  life,  it  is  necessary  to  take  note 
of  the  characteristics  that  differentiate  the  Catholic 
school  from  the  school  that  is  supported  and  controlled 
by  public  authority.  Many  of  the  difficulties  that  con- 
front the  State  school  are  not  found  in  the  Catholic  rural 
school  and  problems  that  the  Catholic  rural  school  experi- 
ences do  not  affect  the  State  system  of  education.  We 
shall  consider,  in  the  first  place,  features  that  are  com- 
mon to  all  Catholic  schools,  and  later  take  up  the  charac- 
teristics of  Catholic  rural  schools. 

First  among  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  Cath- 
olic school  is  the  philosophy  that  underlies  the  entire 
Catholic  system  of  education.  There  is  a  direct  relation 
between  the  Catholic  Church  and  her  school  system  and 
the  principles  which  determined  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  parish  schools  in  the  United  States  are  the  same 
as  those  which  guided  Catholic  schools  in  the  past. 
"  These  principles  sprang  from  certain  definite  views 
about  God  and  man,  and  the  relationship  of  man  with 
God — views  that  are  as  unchangeable  as  Christianity  it- 
self, and  are  indeed  of  its  very  essence — that  man  is  a 
moral  being;  .  .  .  that  God  has  made  a  revelation 
of  truth  through  Christ,  outside  of  the  natural  order  of 
things ;  that  man  is  destined  for  another  and  a  more  per- 
fect life  beyond  the  grave,  for  which  his  life  on  earth 
has  been  ordained  as  a  preparation — these  are  concepts 
that  lie  at  the  root  of  Christian  education.  "* 


1.  Burns,  J.  A.,  Principles,  Origin  and  Establishment  of  the  Catholic 
School  System  in  the  United  States,  New  York,  1912,  p.  16. 


16        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

From  the  above  concepts  have  developed  many  dis- 
tinct principles  regarding  Catholic  education,  its  aims, 
content  and  means. 

One  of  the  fundamental  differences  between  Catholic 
and  State  schools  is  to  be  found  in  the  stand  that  the 
Catholic  Church  takes  on  the  question  of  moral  educa- 
tion or  the  education  of  the  will.  "An  education  that 
quickens  the  intelligence  and  enriches  the  mind  with 
knowledge,  but  fails  to  develop  the  will  and  direct  it  to 
the  practice  of  virtue,  may  produce  scholars,  but  it  can- 
not produce  good  men.  The  exclusion  of  moral  training 
from  the  educative  process  is  more  dangerous  in  pro- 
portion to  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  intellectual 
powers  are  developed,  because  it  gives  the  impression 
that  morality  is  of  little  importance,  and  thus  sends  the 
pupil  into  life  with  a  false  idea  which  is  not  easily  cor- 
rected."* 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  mere  information  or 
knowledge  is  insufficient  for  the  formation  of  character; 
something  more  is  needed  and  this  is  moral  training,  the 
direction  of  the  will  in  education.  But  moral  training 
postulates  a  norm,  a  standard  by  which  morality  can  be 
measured;  a  distinction  between  good  and  evil,  vico  and 
virtue.  This  complete  norm  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
natural  order  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  super- 
natural. For  the  Catholic,  the  norm  of  morality  is  his 
absolute  end,  God ;  hence  the  necessity  of  religious  teach- 
ing in  Catholic  schools.  The  exclusion  of  religion  from 
the  schoolroom,  Catholic  educators  maintain,  is  a  mis- 
take and  non-Catholic  educators  are  endeavoring  to  find 
some  standard  for  conduct  in  school  procedure  by  which 
the  child  may  be  guided  in  the  formation  of  his  charac- 
ter.5 


2.  Pastoral  Letter  of  the  Bishops,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1919,  p.  74. 

3.  Character  Training  in  Childhood,  Mary  S.  Haviland,  Boston,  1921, 
p.  259.  also :     Home,  H.  H.,  The  Philosophy  of  Education.  New  York,  1915, 
p.  126. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        17 

Speaking  of  the  religious  inheritance  of  the  race, 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler  says  "no  student  of  history  can 
doubt  its  existence  and  no  observer  of  human  nature 
will  undervalue  its  significance.  We  are  still  far  from 
comprehending  fully  the  preponderant  influence  of  re- 
ligion in  shaping  our  contemporary  civilization;  an  in- 
fluence that  is  due  in  part  to  the  universality  of  religion 
itself,  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  it  was,  beyond  dispute, 
the  chief  human  interest  at  the  time  when  the  foundation 
of  our  present  superstructure  was  being  laid.  It  has 
played  a  controlling  part  in  education  till  very  recently, 
although  it  has  too  often  played  that  in  a  narrow,  illib- 
eral, and  uninformed  spirit."4  Dr.  Butler  continues  to 
lament  the  fact  that  religion,  due  to  the  separation  of 
Church  and  State,  has  been  omitted  from  the  curriculum 
and  proposes  solutions  for  the  inclusion  of  religious  in- 
struction. He  maintains  that  this  duty  of  imparting 
religious  instruction  should  devolve  upon  the  Church  and 
the  home,  but  experience  teaches  that  religion,  to  be 
effective,  must  be  of  daily  contact  and  cannot  be  imparted 
piecemeal  to  the  individual.  The  Sunday  School  is  in- 
capable of  giving  adequate  religious  instruction.  The 
attendance  cannot  be  made  compulsory;  parents  are 
neglectful  and  it  is  estimated  that  only  about  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  children  in  the  United  States  attend  Sunday 
School/ 

The  Catholic  school  aims  at  the  "development  of 
Christian  character,  based  upon  the  supernatural  virtues 
and  teachings  of  Christ,  not  distinct  from  the  natural 
virtues,  but  including  them  and  much  more  besides,  which 
the  Christian  school  places  first  among  its  duties,  as 
the  thing  of  most  fundamental  importance  to  the  child.  "6 


4.  Butler,  N.  M.,  The  Meaning  of  Education,  New  York,  1911,  p.  281. 

5.  Harris,  W.  T.,  Proceedings  of  tlw  National  Educational  Association, 
1903. 

6.  The   Principles,   Origin  and  Establishment  of  the   Catholic  School 
System  in  the  United  States,  Burns,  J.  A.,  New  York,  1912,  p.  18. 


18        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

For  the  Catholic,  the  ideal  of  character  is  that  estab- 
lished by  Jesus  Christ  himself;  and  this  ideal  consti- 
tutes a  radical  difference  between  the  Catholic  school  and 
the  institution  that  does  not  permit  the  teaching  of 
religion.  The  ideal  of  character  being  different,  the 
means  by  which  it  is  attained  are  likewise  different.  A 
knowledge  of  the  higher  moral  law  revealed  to  us  by 
Jesus  Christ,  joined  to  the  practice  of  the  moral  and 
the  Christian  virtues  is,  according  to  the  Catholic  view, 
the  necessary  requisite  for  the  training  of  character.  If, 
however,  "the  ideal  of  character  is  that  of  natural  man 
and  not  of  Christ,  the  doctrine  of  Herbart,  which  is 
coming  more  and  more  into  favor,  is  sufficient  for  the 
attainment  of  the  ideal."7  Herbart  and  his  followers 
maintain  that  "school  discipline  and  instruction  in  the 
common  branches,  if  illumined  by  fundamental  moral 
ideas,  may  be  the  adequate  means  for  the  development 
of  moral  character.  "8  Non-religious  schools  may  be 
called  a  recent  innovation  in  education.  It  is  only  since 
1840,  due  to  the  demands  and  efforts  of  Horace  Mann 
and  other  educators,  that  religion  has  been  omitted  in 
public  school  curricula.  Lest  we  convey  the  impression 
that  these  men  were  enemies  of  religion,  let  it  be  said 
that  they  realized  the  importance  of  religious  training 
for  the  young,  but  considered  religious  instruction  as 
the  duty  of  the  Home  and  the  Church.  However  good 
their  intentions,  this  much  is  certain,  that  when  religion 
is  banished  from  the  schoolroom,  it  likewise  disappears 
from  the  home.  Out  of  the  total  population  of  105,710,620 
people  there  are  in  the  United  States  about  41,926,854 
who  belong  to  some  religious  sect  or  body.9 

7.  Monroe,  Paul,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education,  New 
York,  1911,  p.  329. 

8.  De  Garmo,  Charles,  Herbart  and  the   Herbartians,   New  York,   p. 
56. 

9.  Fourteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  Washington,  D.  C.  1922. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        19 

Although  the  majority  of  people  does  not  profess 
positive  religious  belief,  nevertheless  they  still  cherish 
certain  Christian  standards  and  desire  that  their  chil- 
dren be  imbued  with  the  same.  But  with  religion  ex- 
cluded from  the  schools,  there  is  wanting  a  firm  basis 
for  the  standards  and  this  defect  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  striking  differences  between  the  Catholic  and  non- 
Catholic  systems  of  education.  Speaking  on  this  ques- 
tion, the  late  Archbishop  John  Ireland  says,  "  Morals 
not  imbedded  in  the  conscience  are  but  shadowy  conven- 
tionalities, powerless  in  the  presence  of  strong  tempta- 
tion ;  and  the  conscience  to  be  the  moral  censor,  as  it  is 
destined  by  the  Creator  to  be,  must  be  permeated  with, 
solidified  in,  religion  ;  the  conscience  without  God  and  the 
Saviour  is  as  a  tribunal  without  a 


The  inclusion  of  religion  in  the  Catholic  rural  school 
curriculum  will  differentiate  it  from  that  of  the  State 
rural  school  course  of  study.  Religion  offers  untold 
opportunities  for  correlation  with  other  subjects,  especi- 
ally Nature  Study.  Through  Nature  Study  the  child  can 
come  to  know  the  visible  creation  and  through  visible 
creation  arrives  at  the  knowledge  of  his  Creator. 

A  second  difference  between  Catholic  and  State 
schools  is  to  be  found  in  the  manner  of  support  and 
maintenance.  The  problem  of  school  support  presents 
an  interesting  story  in  the  history  of  Catholic  education 
in  the  United  States.  The  first  schools,  especially  in 
the  French  and  Spanish  colonies,  were  patterned  after 
the  schools  of  the  mother  country  and,  following  the  cus- 
tom then  in  vogue  in  France  and  Spain,  the  Catholics 
looked  for  assistance  from  the  civil  authorities.  "In  the 
English  colonies  there  was  also  State  support  for  denom- 
inational education,  but  whether  the  Catholics  could  or 
could  not  secure  a  share  of  the  public  funds  depended 

10.  Ireland  John,   Archbishop,   Pastoral  Letter,   Catholic   Schools  for 
Catholic  Children,  St.  Paul,  1913. 


20        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  tichool 

on  local  conditions.  When  the  States  adopted  their  con- 
stitutions, they  did  not  introduce  any  change  in  this 
respect."11  It  was  the  gradual  "rise  of  dissentient  reli- 
gious bodies  in  the  colonies  and  States  due  to  the  influx 
of  immigrants  and  other  causes,  that  brought  about  im- 
portant changes  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  '  non- 
sectarion'  system  of  schools.  "^  The  increase  of  schools 
after  the  American  Revolution  brought  the  question  of 
State  support  to  the  fore.  The  first  attempt  to  obtain 
State  support  was  made  by  Father  Richard  in  Detroit  in 
1808;  he  failed  in  his  effort  although  he  received  tempo- 
rary assistance.15 

At  Lowell,  Mass.,  two  Catholic  schools  received 
State  assistance  from  1836  to  1852.  The  School  Contro- 
versy of  1840,  in  which  Bishop  Hughes  played  a  con- 
spicuous part,  had  its  origin  in  the  question  of  State 
support.  Many  plans  have  been  employed  whereby 
Catholic  schools  have  received  support  from  public  funds, 
e.  g.,  Savannah,  Georgia ;  St.  Augustine,  Florida ;  Pough- 
keepsie,  New  York;  Lima,  Ohio;  Stillwater  and  Fari- 
bault,  Minnesota.14  The  last  named  instance  gave  rise 
to  the  famous  School  Controversy  of  1891-92.  The  Fari- 
bault  plan  was  referred  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Prop- 
aganda and  a  decision  was  rendered  on  April  21,  1892, 
to  the  effect  '  '  that  considering  the  peculiar  circumstances 
and  character  of  the  arrangement,  and  the  agreement 
by  which  the  plan  was  inaugurated,  it  may  be  toler- 
ated. "15  This  plan  was  later  abandoned  in  Faribault  and 
Stillwater  although  it  is  still  in  vogue  in  some  places  in 
Minnesota. 


11.  Turner,  William,  Catholic  Encyclopedia;  Article,  "Schools,"  Vol. 
XIII,  p.  556. 

12.  Burns,   J.   A.,    The  Principles,   Origin  and  Establishment   of  the 
Catholic  School  System  in  the  United  States,  New  York,  1912,  p.  360. 

13.  Ibid.  p.  196. 

14.  Burns,  J.  A.,  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Catholic  School 
System   in    the    United   States,   New   York,    1912,   pp.    248,    seq;    Catholic 
Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  560. 

15.  American  Ecclesiastical  Eeview,  Supplement,  June,  1892. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        21 

The  question  of  maintenance  constitutes  one  of  the 
difficulties  of  the  Catholic  rural  school.  Quite  often 
the  number  of  Catholic  families  is  limited  and  they  are 
unable  to  finance  a  parochial  school,  but  the  public 
school  does  not  depend  merely  on  the  number  of  families 
in  a  locality  but  rather  on  the  attitude  of  the  local  school 
board  working  in  conjunction  with  the  State. 

One  of  the  defects  found  in  State  rural  schools  is 
usually  not  found  in  the  Catholic  school  system  and  this 
is  the  "one-teacher  school."  The  one-teacher  school 
system  has  its  friends  who  maintain  that  it  has  served 
the  people  well  in  the  past  and  advocate  its  continuance. 
We  likewise  hold  that  the  one  teacher-school  had  been 
a  saving  force  in  American  life  but  "it  has  served  its 
day."  Poets  have  sung  the  praises  of  the  "little  red 
schoolhouse"  and  its  associations  are  dear  to  us  all. 
The  little  red  schoolhouse  or  the  one-teacher  school 
belongs  to  a  generation  that  has  passed,  and  "is  typical 
of  a  primitive  social  order  in  which  each  individual  was 
a  jack-of-all-trades,  fitted  to  do  all  things  passably  well, 
and  no  one  thing  especially  so. ' nQ  For  those  who  extol  the 
advantages  of  the  one-teacher  school,  we  would  say  that  it 
is  well  for  them  to  remember  that  the  one-teacher  system 
came  first  and  that  it  was  supplanted  by  the  graded 
system  which  is  regarded  as  an  outgrowth  and  also  an 
improvement.  In  the  one-teacher  school,  where  there 
are  from  six  to  eight  grades,  there  are  at  least  four 
daily  recitations  for  each  grade.  This  demands  more 
work  and  energy  than  one  teacher  is  capable  of  and  the 
result  is  usually  the  hastening  over  of  lessons  due  to 
the  curtailment  of  time. 

Another  defect  in  the  one-teacher  system  is  the  fol- 
lowing: "The  small  number  of  children  enrolled  very 
frequently  makes  an  uninteresting  school  and  never  fails, 


16.  Carney,   Mabel,  Country  Life   and   The  Country  School,  Chicago, 
1912,  p.  141. 


22        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

even  in  larger  schools,  to  necessitate  the  formation  of 
some  classes  of  one,  two  or  three  children.  Such  con- 
ditions are  abnormal  and  anti-social.  The  stray  children 
of  these  classes  consequently  lose  interest,  dawdle,  and 
often  drop  out  of  school  altogether,  through  the  simple 
lack  of  companionable  associates."17  One  of  the  most 
important  phases  of  school  life  is  the  social  phase  in 
which  the  child  comes  into  contact  with  children  of  his 
own  age.  In  the  one-room  school  this  stimulating  and 
beneficial  influence  is  absent  due  to  the  scarcity  of  num- 
bers in  the  classes.  The  child  fails  to  see  the  advantage 
of  team  and  cooperative  work;  he  is  not  brought  face 
to  face  with  problems  that  affect  other  children  and  he 
leaves  school  without  an  understanding  and  an  appreci- 
ation of  cooperative  effort.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  about  212,000  schools  of  the  one-teacher  type  in 
use  in  rural  communities  and  they  are  the  only  means 
of  education  for  a  large  percentage  of  the  children.15  At 
the  present  time  the  one-teacher  school  in  American  edu- 
cation is  one  the  ;wane  and  the  consolidation  of  the  small 
schools  is  constantly  growing.  Although  a  law  was 
passed  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1869  for  consolida- 
tion it  had  little  or  no  effect  until  the  district  system 
fell  into  disuse  in  1890.  From  Massachusetts  the  move- 
ment spread  westward  to  Ohio  and  Indiana.  At  the 
present  the  consolidation  movement  has  passed  the  state 
of  experimentation  and  has  been  accepted  as  a  national 
policy  in  American  education.  In  1918  there  were  about 
10,500  consolidated  schools  in  the  United  States.  "The 
most  satisfactory  type  of  consolidated  schools  is  planned 
to  give  the  rural  community  just  the  kind  of  education 
required  by  an  agricultural  population.  Broadly  cul- 
tural, and  yet  practical;  preparing  them  for  happy, 
wholesome,  remunerative  living  on  the  land.  Many  of 

17.  Ibid.  p.  143. 

18.  Biennial  Survey  of  Education,  1916-1918,  Vol.  I,  Washington,  D.  C., 
p.  167. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        23 

the  early  consolidated  schools  were  planned  as  big  graded 
schools  offering  courses  of  study  in  no  wise  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  rural  districts.  The  new  type  of  schools 
are  organized  with  a  view  of  preparing  for  the  new  agri- 
cultural era  of  a  permanent  farming  population  of 
highest  ideals.  "19 

Happily,  in  the  Catholic  system  of  education,  the 
one-teacher  school  is  practically  non-existent.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  teachers  in  the  Catholic 
system  are  Religious  and  do  not  accept  schools  which  do 
not  warrant  the  presence  of  at  least  two  teachers.  Two 
or  three  teachers  in  an  outlying  district  are  necessary 
in  order  that  their  religious  life  may  not  be  interfered 
with.  Again,  where  the  parish  can  afford  the  erection 
of  a  parochial  school,  there  is  usually  a  sufficient  number 
of  children  to  demand  the  attention  of  at  least  two  or 
three  teachers.  Hence  the  Catholic  rural  school  does  not 
have  to  contend  with  the  problem  that  the  State  system 
has  to  meet. 

Another  mark  of  differentiation  of  the  Catholic  rural 
school  is  the  inclusion  of  subjects  that  are  not  found 
in  the  city  parochial  school.  The  content  matter  will 
differ  but  slightly  but  the  attack  on  new  subject  matter 
in  the  curriculum  will  be  different,  due  to  the  pre-school 
experience  of  country  children.  The  Catholic  school  will 
then  include  in  its  curriculum,  subjects  such  as  Nature 
Study,  Elementary  Agriculture  and  Household  Eco- 
nomics. All  the  branches  of  the  rural  curriculum  will 
make  special  reference  to  country  life  and  needs. 

To  sum  up  the  differences  between  the  Catholic  rural 
school  and  the  State  rural  school:  first  and  foremost 
is  the  distinction  in  regard  to  religion;  secondly,  in  the 
manner  of  support ;  thirdly,  in  the  Catholic  system  there 
are  no  one-teacher  schools  and  the  personnel  of  the 

19.  Biennial  Survey  of  Education,  1916-1918,  Vol.  I,  Washington,  D.  C., 
p.  168. 


24        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

teaching  staff  is  composed  largely  of  women  living  a 
religious  life.  The  characteristics  that  are  proper  to 
the  rural  Catholic  school  are  about  the  same  as  those 
found  in  the  Catholic  urban  school  with  the  exception 
that  in  the  rural  school  there  are  added  a  few  new  sub- 
jects and  the  attack  on  subject  matter  is  slightly  different, 
dn~e~to  the  environment  and  the  interests  of  the  child. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        25 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  CATHOLIC  RURAL  SCHOOL 

PART  I.  THE  NEED. 

The  American  public  mind  is  awakening  to  the  need 
of  establishing  a  permanent,  satisfied  population  in  the 
farming  districts  and  of  putting  a  check  to  the  cityward 
trend  of  our  rural  inhabitants.  This  awakening  has  been 
caused  principally  by  economic  conditions.  Economists, 
sociologists  and  statesmen  are  loud  in  their  clamor  for 
a  remedy  to  alleviate  the  lot  of  our  farming  people. 
Catholic  leaders  share  these  ideas  of  their  fellow  Ameri- 
cans and  are  insisting  that  the  Church  take  cognizance 
of  the  rural  problem  and  attempt  its  solution.  All  Cath- 
olic and  non-Catholic  leaders  are  agreed  that  the 
beginning  of  the  solution  is  to  be  found  in  the  rural 
school. 

The  question  of  rural  education  in  the  United  States 
constitutes  one  of  our  greatest  educational  problems. 
The  rural  school  typified  in  "the  little  red  schoolhouse" 
of  pioneer  days  has  won  for  itself  a  place  in  the  hearts 
and  affections  of  the  common  people.  It  is  an  American 
institution  suited  to  supply  the  demands  of  pioneer  days 
but  unable  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  modern  rural  life. 
Pioneer  life  was  fraught  with  difficulties  and  trials,  and 
each  individual  farmer  had  to  struggle  with  the  forces 
of  Nature  to  obtain  the  bare  necessities  of  life.  His 
attention  was  centered  on  the  material  aspect  of  things 
and  he  had  little  opportunity  to  consider  the  cultural 
and  educational  advantages  of  life.  "Consequently  the 
school  terms  were  short,  attendance  was  low,  and 


26        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

teachers  were  miserably  paid  and  poorly  qualified  for 
the  work.  The  whole  school  was  crude  and  primitive  in 
the  extreme,  but  as  life  in  those  days  was  exceedingly 
simple,  in  both  the  open  country  and  in  the  towns,  and 
school  work  did  not  go  far  beyond  the  '  three  R's,'  a 
school  of  this  kind  served  the  needs  of  the  people  fairly 
well."* 

The  growth  of  industrial  and  manufacturing  centers 
caused  many  social  and  economic  changes  and  the  city 
schools  took  cognizance  of  the  changed  character  and 
altered  their  methods  of  procedure  to  meet  the  new  needs 
of  the  people  and  thus  kept  abreast  of  the  times.  The 
rural  communities  likewise  assumed  new  characteristics, 
especially  during  the  Economic  Eevolution.  From  the 
trials  and  privations  of  pioneer  life,  the  American  far- 
mer first  rose  to  a  state  where  he  received  reasonable 
returns  from  his  labor  and  then  to  economic  indepen- 
dence. The  introduction  of  labor  saving  machinery  after 
the  Civil  War  completely  changed  the  work  of  the  farmer. 
Despite  this  change  in  the  economic  and  industrial  phases 
of  agricultural  life,  the  school  has  remained  stationery; 
it  has  stagnated  until  at  the  present  day  we  have  a 
primitive  educational  institution  serving  12,000,000  boys 
and  girls  living  under  modern  conditions  and  preparing 
to  take  an  active  part  in  modern  life. 

The  problems  of  rural  life  and  especially  the  rural 
schools  received  little  attention  and  publicity  until 
President  Eoosevelt  appointed  the  Country  Life  Com- 
mission and  not  until  the  comprehensive  report  of  this 
Commission  was  presented  to  the  public  did  the  American 
people  realize  that  "a  national  crisis  existed  in  rural 
life  conditions."  The  American  farmer  at  that  time, 
apparently  at  least,  was  successful  in  achieving  financial 

1.  Arp,  Julius  B.,  Eural  Education  and  the  Consolidated  School.  1918 
p.  5. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        27 

results  from  Ms  labors ;  the  introduction  of  labor-saving 
machinery  had  removed  much  of  the  drudgery  from  farm 
life  and  had  made  agriculture  more  profitable.  But  these 
advantages  affected  only  the  material  side  of  life.  The 
intellectual  and  spiritual  interests  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion were  but  slightly  influenced.  The  American  farmer 
was  in  a  state  of  discontent;  his  social  status  was  not 
in  accord  with  the  conditions  of  modern  life ;  the  country 
church  was  nearly  bankrupt;  the  school  a  blot  on  the 
civilization  of  the  twentieth  century;  in  fact,  all  those 
influences  that  go  to  make  for  the  higher  and  spiritual 
betterment  of  man  were  peculiarly  lacking  in  American 
rural  life.  The  report  of  the  Commission  evoked  reforms 
of  various  sorts;  suggestions  were  manifold — elaborate 
articles  were  compiled  on  the  "Back  to  the  Farm  Move- 
ment, "  and  other  idealistic  and  visionary  schemes  were 
proffered  to  relieve  the  situation  which  was  seen  to  be 
confronting  a  large  portion  of  the  people. 

After  a  long  and  careful  analysis,  rural  sociologists 
and  economists  placed  the  remedy  in:  1,  a  satisfactory 
social  life;  and  2,  an  efficient  school  system.  The  two 
defects  that  stood  out  notably  in  American  rural  life 
were  an  unsatisfactory  social  existence  and  an  antiquated 
and  inefficient  school  system.  The  remedying  of  the 
former  defect  lies  within  the  scope  of  the  country  church 
and  we  have  noted  this  fact  in  a  previous  chapter.  The 
case  of  the  rural  school  will  occupy  us  in  the  present 
chapter. 

We  have  mentioned  that  one  of  the  alarming  con- 
ditions in  American  rural  life  is  the  urban  trend.  This 
depletion  of  country  people  can,  in  four  out  of  five  cases, 
be  explained  by  inefficient  rural  schools.  E.  P.  Cubberly 
depicts  the  rural  school  in  the  following  words:  "The 
strong,  virile,  rural  school  of  a  generation  ago  has  passed, 
and  in  its  place  is  a  primary  school,  weak  in  numbers 
and  lacking  in  efficiency.  The  school  buildings  are  poor, 


28        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

unsanitary  and  ill-equipped.  The  school  enrollment  is 
constantly  decreasing.  The  supervision  is  wholly  inade- 
quate. The  cost  of  instruction  is  higher  than  in  the  cities. 
The  terms  are  short.  The  teaching  body  is  immature 
and  lacks  proper  training.  Of  the  12,000,000  rural  school 
children,  constituting  a  clear  majority  of  the  youth  of 
school  age,  less  than  25  per  cent  are  completing  the 
work  of  the  grades."*  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  type 
of  school  is  still  to  be  found  ministering  to  a  majority 
of  the  people  on  whom  the  strength  and  civilization  of 
the  nation  rests.  The  urban  centers  depend  on  the 
country;  the  cities  cannot  thrive  if  rural  life  is  unsatis- 
factory. "If  the  rural  schools  fail,  rural  civilization 
will  fail ;  if  rural  civilization  fails,  American  civilization 
will  fail."5 

Our  agricultural  wealth  and  rich  farming  lands  have 
in  the  past  seemed  so  vast  that  we  as  a  nation  have 
neglected  to  consider  the  plight  of  the  farmer,  socially 
and  educationally.  The  recent  World  War  revealed  to 
us  the  vast  importance  of  a  sturdy  agricultural  popula- 
tion which  provided  food  stuffs  for  the  Allies  as  well 
as  for  ourselves  and  reminded  the  American  people  that 
this  country  was  the  granary  of  the  world.  The  Ameri- 
can farmer  responded  to  the  call  of  increased  acreage 
of  wheat  and  other  food  materials  but  the  Avar  taught 
this  lesson  that 1 1  as  a  permanent  food  producer,  America 
must  be  aroused  to  the  urgent  and  immediate  need  of 
modern,  intensive  and  efficient  farming,  both  in  war 
and  in  peace. ' u 

Increased  food  production  is  not  the  solution  of  the 
rural  problem;  it  is  rather  the  establishment  on  our 
fertile  lands  of  a  permanent,  contented  agricultural  pop- 

2.  Fail-child,    E.    T.,   quoted   J>y   E.   P.    Culberly  in.  Rural   Life    and 
Education,  New  York,  1914,  p.  97. 

3.  National  Education  Bulletin,  Commission  Series,  Number  four,  1918, 
Washington. 

4.  Arp,  J.  B.,  Rural  Education  and  the  Consolidated  School,  St.  Paul, 
1918,  p.  144. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        29 

ulation  receiving  adequate  returns  from  their  labors  and 
leading  a  social  existence  that  modern  American  life 
demands.  To  establish  this  permanent  population  the 
beginning  is  to  be  made  in  the  schools  and  in  the  country 
church;  in  fact,  in  all  those  agencies  that  make  for  the 
betterment  of  man.  Attention  must  be  centered  on  the 
country  if  results  are  to  be  achieved.  Urban  problems 
have  too  long  engaged  the  attention  of  the  American 
mind,  whereas  the  farmer  has  been  left  to  his  own 
initiative  to  work  out  his  salvation.  Neither  the  Church 
nor  the  State,  except  in  recent  years,  has  put  forth 
organized  effort  to  relieve  the  situation  of  the  farming 
class.  Economically,  educationally  and  socially  the 
American  farmer  is  on  the  verge  of  despair.5 

Inflated  land  values  have  given  rise  to  a  form  of 
landlordism,  the  concentration  of  land  ownership  in  the 
hands  of  a  few.  This  form  of  exploitation  is  not  unlike 
the  European  system  of  "absentee  landlords. "  Educa- 
tionally, the  farmer  sees  his  children  getting  an  unsatis- 
factory education  while  his  city  friends  enjoy  the 
advantages  and  benefits  of  a  more  thorough  educational 
system.  Socially,  his  life  is  one  of  isolation  and 
drudgery.  Such  a  condition  gives  rise  to  a  state  of 
discontent  and  dissatisfaction. 

To  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  the  Catholic  Church 
is  called  upon,  and  as  in  times  past,  she  must  respond 
to  the  situation.  The  rehabilitation  of  rural  America  is 
just  as  important  and  honorable  as  the  work  performed 
by  St.  Benedict  and  his  followers  in  sixth  century  in 
Western  Europe. 

5.  In  1916  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  act  was  passed  which  provided 
"  capital  for  agricultural  development,  to  create  a  standard  form  of 
investment  based  upon  farm  mortgage  to  equalize  rates  of  interest  upon 
farm  loans,  to  furnish  a  market  for  United  States  bonds,  to  create  Govern- 
ment depositaries  and  financial  agents  for  the  United  States,  and  for  other 


30        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

Some  prominent  churchmen  advocate  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  religious  community  that  will  devote  itself 
especially  to  the  rural  work.  Whether  such  a  plan  would 
prove  feasible  remains  to  be  seen,  but  the  issue  at  stake 
is  certainly  worth  the  trial.  "The  experience  in 
Australia  of  a  religious  community  of  women  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  religious  instruction  of  children  in  the 
remotest  country  districts  is  full  of  significance  for  us 
in  America,  and  the  beginnings  which  they  have  already 
made  of  similar  work  in  our  country  should  be  encour- 
aged and  multiplied.6 

If  the  Catholic  Church  is  to  vitalize  and  rehabilitate 
the  rural  communities,  the  work  is  to  be  done  through  the 
medium  of  the  Catholic  rural  school.  Catholic  rural 
education  at  present  is  only  in  its  initial  stage  due  to 
the  fact  already  mentioned  that  only  about  19  per  cent 
of  our  Catholic  population  is  classed  as  rural.  Neverthe- 
less the  welfare  of  the  minority  is  to  the  advantage  of 
the  majority. 

The  ruling  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
with  regard  to  the  establishment  of  schools  did  not 
take  into  consideration  the  distinction  between  urban 
and  rural  communities  and  the  obligation  of  erecting  and 
supporting  schools  was  clearly  set  forth  in  the  decrees 
of  the  Council: 

"I.  Near  each  church,  where  it  does  not  yet  exist,  a 
parochial  school  is  to  be  erected  within  two  years  from 
the  promulgation  of  this  Council,  and  this  is  to  be  main- 
tained in  perpetuum,  unless  the  bishop,  on  account  of 
grave  difficulties,  judge  that  a  postponement  be  allowed. 

"II.  A  priest  who,  by;  his  grave  negligence,  pre- 
vents the  erection  of  a  school  within  this  time,  or  its 

6.  O'Hara,  Edwin  V.,-  Proceedings  of  the  Catholic  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, Vol.  XVII,  1920,  p.  241. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        31 

maintenance,  or  who,  after  repeated  admonitions  of  the 
bishop,  does  not  attend  to  the  matter,  deserves  removal 
from  that  church. 

"III.  A  mission  or  a  parish  which  so  neglects  to 
assist  a  priest  in  erecting  or  maintaining  a  school,  that 
by  reason  of  this  supine  negligence  the  school  is  ren- 
dered impossible,  should  be  reprehended  by  the  bishop 
and,  by  the  most  efficacious  and  prudent  means  possible, 
induced  to  contribute  the  necessary  support. 

"IV.  All  Catholic  parents  are  bound  to  send  their 
children  to  the  parochial  schools,  unless  either  at  home 
or  in  other  Catholic  schools  they  may  sufficiently  and 
evidently  provide  for  the  Christian  education  of  their 
children,  or  unless  it  be  lawful  to  send  them  to  other 
schools  on  account  of  a  sufficient  cause,  approved  by  the 
bishop,  and  with  opportune  cautions  and  remedies. 

As  to  what  is  a  Catholic  school,  it  is  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Ordinary  to  define."7 

The  above  decrees,  in  a  general  way,  have  been 
carried  out,  especially  in  the  cities  and  towns  but  they 
have  had  little  or  no  effect  in  the  rural  or  remote  places 
of  the  country.  As  a  result,  Catholic  education  in  the 
cities  has  made  wonderful  progress  but  in  the  matter 
of  rural  education  Catholics  have  made  little  effort. 
Recently  there  have  been  indications  of  a  concerted 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Church  to  consider  and  develop 
Catholic  rural  education.  Means  are  also  being  devised 
for  the  instruction  of  those  children  who  are  unable,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  to  attend  a  Catholic  school.  The 
first  one  to  make  a  move  in  this  direction  was  Eeverend 
Edwin  V.  O'Hara  of  Lane  County,  Oregon.  Dr.  O'Hara 
presented  a  paper  at  the  New  York  meeting  of  the 
Catholic  Educational  Association  in  1920  in  which  he 
surveyed  the  rural  problem  in  its  religious  and  educa- 

7.  Deoreta  N.  199,  Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  III. 


32        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

tional  aspects  and  emphasized  the  need  of  a  thorough 
Catholic  rural  education  which  would  minister  to  the 
needs  of  Catholics  dwelling  in  the  open  country.  In 
June,  1921,  at  the  meeting  of  the  Catholic  Educational 
Association  in  Cincinnati,  a  paper  was  read  on  the 
"Catholic  Rural  School  Curriculum"  and  also  one  on 
"Catholic  Rural  Extension  Education."  During  the 
summer  of  1921  the  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council 
deemed  it  necessary  to  institute  a  special  department 
devoted  to  questions  and  problems  pertaining  to  Catholic 
rural  life.  This  bureau  will  form  part  of  the  Department 
of  Social  Action  and  Dr.  Edwin  V.  O'Hara  has  been 
appointed  the  director.5 

Efforts  have  also  been  made  in  regard  to  Catholic 
Vacation  schools  and  some  dioceses  have  started  cor- 
respondence courses  in  Religious  Instruction  for  those 
who  are  so  situated  that  they  are  unable  to  enjoy  the 
benefits  of  oral  instruction.  We  will  consider  this 
question  after  we  have  surveyed  the  Catholic  school 
proper. 

PART  II.  ORGANIZATION  AND  SUPERVISION. 

In  the  formation  of  a  Catholic  rural  school  the 
question  of  organization  and  administration  is  of  para- 
mount importance.  In  the  Catholic  system  of  education 
we  meet  with  three  elements  of  authority;  the  diocese, 
the  religious  community  and  the  individual  parish.  Each 
of  these  has  jurisdiction  over  the  school,  but  their  juris- 
diction is  confined  to  a  special  sphere  so  that  there  is 
no  overlapping.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  diocese  is 
usually  exercised  thru  a  diocesan  superintendent  whose 
authority  extends  over  all  the  schools  of  the  diocese.  In 
this  respect  his  office  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  State 
superintendent  who  exercises  jurisdiction  over  all  the 

8.  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council  Bulletin,  January,  1922,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  p.  24. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        33 

schools  of  the  State.  In  the  individual  school  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  religious  community  is  the  Superioress 
who  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  does  the  State  school 
principal.  The  parish  priest,  as  the  representative  of 
parochial  authority,  is  responsible  to  the  diocesan 
authorities  for  the  administration  and  management  of 
the  parish  school.  He  is  by  law  the  school  principal,  but 
rarely  does  he  exercise  the  duties  of  this  office,  except 
to  a  certain  extent.  "The  Pastor  is  the  supervisor,  the 
banker,  the  motive  power,  the  soul  of  the  school.  He 
must  bear  all  the  worries,  to  obtain  the  necessary  funds 
to  meet  the  expenditures;  but,  large  as  these  responsi- 
bilities are,  his  duties  would  be  comparatively  light  if 
these  ended  here.  He  should  show  that  everything  that 
is  done  in  other  schools  is  done  also  for  those  in  the 
parish  school.  He  should  show  that  the  future  belongs 
to  the  people  who  will  educate  their  children ;  show  them 
how  the  business  world  is  taken  over  by  the  Jews  because 
of  the  great  sacrifices  they  make  to  educate  their  chil- 
dren; show  them  that,  as  a  Cardinal  of  the  Church  has 
said  on  matters  of  religion,  a  people  may,  in  thirty  years 
with  no  Catholic  education,  no  Catholic  thought,  no 
church,  and  by  the  reading  of  irreligious  and  socialistic 
books,  lose  their  faith  and  become  as  their  surround- 
ings. "9 

In  a  large  city  parish,  with  its  many  and  varied 
responsibilities,  it  is  well  nigh  impossible  for  the  pastor 
to  personally  fulfill  all  of  his  duties  towards  the  school. 
The  reverse  is  true  of  the  small  country  parish;  the 
priest  can  devote  a  major  portion  of  his  time  to  the 
activities  of  the  school  proper;  altho  in  the  actual  work 
of  the  classroom,  which  demands  technical  training,  he 
should  be  aware  of  his  limitations.  The  American  priest, 
altho  a  moral  teacher  par  excellence,  has  had  little  oppor- 

9.  Cassidy,    Charles    A.,    Proceedings    of    the    Catholic    Educational 
Association,  1920,  p.  182. 


34        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

tunity  to  receive  pedagogical  training.  This  lack  of 
specific  training,  for  the  duties  of  teaching  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  individual  priest  but  of  the  seminary  curric- 
ulum. In  recent  years  the  science  of  Pedagogy,  has  been 
making  its  way  slowly  but  surely  into  the  seminary 
course.  The  introduction  of  Pedagogy  and  kindred 
studies  will  do  much  for  Catholic  education  and 
especially  in  rural  districts,  where  the  priest  has  more 
time  at  his  command  and  where  his  duties  are  not  so 
many.  The  priest  who  has  had  technical  training  can 
easily  conduct  classes  in  many  of  the  subjects  that  are 
proper  to  the  rural  school,  e.  g.,  Elementary  Agriculture, 
as  some  priests  at  present  are  doing.  If,  however,  he  is 
lacking  in  pedagogical  skill,  caution  must  be  exercised 
in  matters  that  demand  technical  training;  because  in 
this  case  more  harm  can  be  done  that  good  accomplished. 
An  energetic  pastor  who  is  aware  of  the  possibilities  of 
a  Catholic  rural  school  can  focalize  the  entire  community 
around  the  institution.  Where  there  is  the  alternative 
of  either  erecting  a  church  or  a  school  the  school  should 
come  first.  A  combination  church  and  school  building 
might  be  erected  which  for  the  time  being  would  serve 
the  parish  very  efficiently. 

The  Catholic  rural  school  should  be  the  social  centre 
of  the  community  in  which  it  is  placed ;  around  it  should 
be  gathered  all  the  activities  that  make  for  the  better- 
ment of  the  countryside.  Social  activities  especially 
should  receive  attention  and  in  the  construction  of  the 
school  this  matter  should  be  taken  into  account.  The 
school  plant  should  be  so  arranged  that  institutes,  enter- 
tainments and  other  forms  of  recreation  could  be  held 
in  the  building.  If  we  conceive  the  school  merely  as  a 
building  in  which  the  child  receives  formal  instruction 
in  the  various  branches  of  the  curriculum,  we  are  making 
a  serious  mistake.  This  however,  has  been  the  attitude 
in  the  past.  In  the  future,  not  only  the  child  but  also 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        35 

the  adult  will  receive  benefit  from  the  school,  if  not 
along  purely  educational  lines,  at  least  in  a  social  and 
recreative  way.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  rural 
school  of  the  future.  The  lack  of  recreative  facilities 
has  made  rural  life  unattractive  and  boring,  but  with  the 
right  use  of  the  school  plant  much  of  the  unpleasantness 
of  life  in  the  country  can  be  eliminated.  "The  school- 
house  standing  alone  in  its  isolation  and  aloofness  from 
all  community  interests  and  activities  may  still  be  found. 
Such  a  schoolhouse  has  a  cold,  forbidding  appearance. 
It  attracts  neither  the  child  nor  the  parent.  Under 
compulsion  the  child  goes  to  school  in  the  morning  and 
leaves  with  joy  when  school  is  over.  It  may  be  the  only 
building  in  the  neighborhood  with  a  room  large  enough 
for  an  assembly.  It  may  stand  in  the  midst  of  lowly 
homes  whose  occupants  are  waiting  to  be  led  to  higher 
standards  of  living.  It  may  be  the  sole  instrument 
available  for  transforming  the  district  into  a  cooperative 
body  working  for  their  common  interests.  In  spite  of 
these  opportunities  and  needs,  the  school  continues  to 
serve  its  owners  but  a  few  hours  of  the  total  number 
possible  and  in  an  educational  field  limited  to  classroom 
instruction.  "10  This  type  of  school  is  still  prevalent  in 
many  communities  and  it  is  clear  that  it  is  not  fulfilling 
its  responsibilities  to  the  people  who  support  it.  The 
Catholic  rural  school  should  be  the  dynamic  center  from 
which  the  countryside  is  to  derive  its  power,  energy  and 
inspiration. 

One  factor  in  country  life  that  receives  little  atten- 
tion but  which  could  easily  be  supplied  by  the  rural 
school  is  the  library.  People  living  in  towns  or  in  the 
cities  enjoy  the  benefits  of  a  well-organized  library.  The 
farmer  however  is  deprived  of  this.  To  supply  this  need 
in  country  life,  the  school  should  have  a  well  equipped 


10.  Strayer,  George,   and  Englehardt,  N.  L.,   The  Classroom  Teacher, 
New  York,  1920,  p.  372. 


36        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

library  for  the  use  of  the  community.  The  establishment 
of  a  rural  school  library  will  give  the  country  resident, 
whether  adult  or  youth,  an  opportunity  to  procure  just 
as  good  reading  material  as  his  friend  in  the  city.  The 
farmer  and  his  children  seek  suitable  reading  matter  for 
the  same  reason  that  the  family  in  the  city  does.  Their 
isolation  and  lack  of  social  intercourse  make  reading  in 
the  home  almost  a  necessity.  Altho  there  is  much  work 
to  be  done  about  the  farm,  there  is  a  time  during  the 
year,  and  especially  during  the  winter,  that  could  be 
given  over  to  the  perusal  of  good  literature,  either  for 
enjoyment  or  inspiration.  "The  school,  as  a  central 
point  from  which  books  may  be  obtained  for  general 
reading  in  the  home,  should,  and  does  in  most  instances, 
offer  a  safeguard  against  the  selection  of  books  that 
contain  nothing  in  particular  to  recommend 


The  raising  of  money  to  support  the  library  could 
easily  be  put  in  the  hands  of  one  of  the  parish  societies 
or  the  necessary  funds  might  be  realized  through  public 
subscription.  The  selection  of  books  for  the  school 
library  could  be  made  by  the  diocesan  superintendent 
working  in  conjunction  with  the  pastor,  the  teachers  and 
a  few  laymen  of  the  community. 

There  are  some  libraries  that  contain  books  that  are 
useless  because  of  the  fact  that  they  are  not  suited  to 
the  people's  tastes  or  needs.  The  judicious  selection  of 
books  is  to  be  taken  into  account  when  the  library  is 
formed  which  will  supply  the  needs  of  country  people. 
The  principal  reason  for  the  presence  of  a  school  library 
is  to  develop  in  the  pupils  a  taste  for  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  best  literature.  In  the  early  years  of  adolescence 
habits  are  easily  formed;  hence  if  the  proper  books  are 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  child  he  will  form  a  habit 

11.  Graham,  A.  B.,  The  Tenth  Year  Boole  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,  1911,  p.  25. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        37 

of  good  reading.  The  presence  of  such  a  school  library 
will  make  itself  felt  in  the  farm  home;  it  will  raise  the 
standard  of  living  and  contribute  much  to  the  elevation 
of  country  life.  "Literature  is  perhaps  the  most  spirit- 
ualizing influence  of  the  average  farm  home,  but  much 
of  the  reading  done  in  the  country  is  of  a  desultory 
character.  Too  little  attention  is  given  to  the  upbuilding 
of  systematically  planned  libraries.  Books  are  often 
indiscriminately  purchased  from  agents  or  at  bargain 
counters  and  are  carelessly  thrown  about  the  house  until 
lost  or  worn  out."  lg 

In  recent  years  the  various  States  have  recognized 
the  importance  of  libraries  for  country  people  and  have 
devised  means  of  meeting  this  need  through  the  estab- 
lishment of  county  libraries  and  branch  stations  located 
in  convenient  centers,  as  the  country  store  or  school. 
Another  form  of  library  is  the  "travelling  library" 
which  in  the  short  period  of  its  existence  has  certainly 
proven  its  worth.  "Its  purpose  has  been  accomplished 
wherever  it  has  received  fair  trial.  And  this  is  in  truth 
in  many  places,  for  not  alone  has  it  been  adopted  as  a 
regular  form  of  library  work  in  almost  every  State  in 
the  union,  but  it  is  penetrating  the  remotest  corners  of 
states  where  hitherto  library  privileges  were  practically 
unknown. 


At  present  the  average  rural  inhabitant  is  far  behind 
the  urban  resident  in  the  matter  of  good  reading.  The 
lack  of  good  books  in  the  average  farm  home  is  pathetic 
and  the  character  of  the  daily  or  weekly  paper  commonly 
received  in  the  home  is  anything  but  uplifting  and 
inspiring.  The  duty  of  cultivating  the  habit  of  good 

12.  Carney,    Mabel,    Country    Life    and    the    Country    School,    1913, 
Chicago,  p.  32. 

13.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  American  Eural  School,  1913,  New  York,  p.  271. 


38        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

reading  devolves  on  the  school.  A  community  that  is 
devoted  to  reading  is  invariably  a  progressive  com- 
munity. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  Catholic  rural 
school  in  a  community  that  is  predominantly  Catholic. 
But  there  are  many  districts  in  this  country  that  are 
unable  to  support  a  Catholic  school,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  numbers,  and  the  needs  of  these  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  about 
seventy  families  are  necessary  to  support  and  maintain 
a  parochial  school  efficiently.  A  small  number  of  families 
makes  the  erection  and  support  of  a  parochial  school  an 
impossibility  unless  several  parishes  combine  for  the 
purpose.  The  following  plan,  we  think,  could  be  adopted 
in  many  places  throughout  the  country.  The  school  could 
be  located  in  a  town  or  village  and  take  on  the  appear- 
ance of  a  boarding  school.  This  type  of  school  is  called 
the  ''Five  Day  Boarding  School"  because  the  children 
are  at  school  from  Monday  morning  until  Friday  evening, 
when  they  return  to  their  homes.  This  system  has  its 
good  features  and  also  its  disadvantages  but  it  seems  to 
be  the  only  solution  of  the  difficulty.  "The  idea  has  been 
carried  out  in  some  country  parishes  and  the  pastors 
are  enthusiastic  over  the  good  results.  It  seems  possible 
to  board  a  child  for  about  ten  dollars  a  month  at  the 
present  time,  a  sum  which  parents  are  willing  to  pay  for 
the  advantages  received,  especially,  when  the  importance 
of  the  matter  has  been  brought  within  reach  of  their 
understanding."^  The  child  under  this  plan  is  not 
entirely  removed  from  home  influence  which,  as  we  know, 
is  so  important  in  the  early  years  of  childhood.  He  is  in 
school  about  four  and  one-half  days  and  the  remainder 
of  the  week  he  spends  at  home  with  his  family.  This  plan 
entails  extra  work  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  who  have 
to  act  in  the  capacity  of  prefects  and  demands  an  extra 


14.  Superintendent's  Eeport,  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul,  1921,  p.  14. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        39 

quota  of  Sisters  who  have  to  devote  their  time  to  the 
preparation  of  the  pupils'  meals  and  other  household 
cares  incidental  to  the  running  of  a  boarding  school. 
This  method  does  not  entail  heavy  expense  on  those 
families  who  are  compelled  to  send  children  to  a  school 
of  this  kind.  Usually  the  board  is  quite  reasonable 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  farmers  supply  much  of  the 
food  stuffs  gratis  and  thus  the  institution  is  saved  con- 
siderable expense.  A  plan  similar  to  this  will  eventually 
come  into  vogue,  because  there  are  many  districts  that 
cannot  and  will  not  be  able  to  support  a  school.  In  fact 
this  type  of  school  is  gradually  appearing  in  the  Western 
dioceses  and  the  results  thus  far  point  to  its  still  greater 
development. 

In  the  matter  of  the  supervision  of  a  Catholic  rural 
school,  the  part  played  by  the  diocesan  superintendent 
is  of  paramount  importance.  One  of  the  drawbacks  in 
many  parochial  schools  is  the  lack  of  professional  super- 
vision. The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  realized 
this  defect  in  the  schools  and  embodied  in  its  decrees 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  formation  of  a  "Diocesan 
School  Board "  and  defined  its  duties.15  This  "  Board 
System "  correlated  to  a  large  extent  Catholic  school 
work.  "The  central  board  was  found  to  be  an  admirable 
institution  for  the  settlement  of  educational  questions  of 
a  practical  character,  but  these  questions  had  to  be 
brought  before  it.  The  members  were  not  primarily 
educators,  but  pastors.  They  had  little  time  to  give  to 
the  study  of  educational  problems,  even  if  they  had  the 
requisite  training  for  it.  They  visited  the  schools,  but 
the  inspection  was  more  often  characterized  by  a  spirit 
of  kindly,  paternal  interest  than  by  practical  insight.  It 
soon  became  evident  that  the  central  board  needed  to 
be  supplemented  by  a  man  who,  to  scientific  training  in 
Pedagogy,  should  add  those  qualities  of  zeal,  discretion 


15.  Ada  et  Decreta,  Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  Ill,  N.  203,  204. 


40        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

and  large  mindedness  which  would  fit  him  to  act  as  the 
executive  officer  of  the  board.  "16  The  School  Board  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  New  York  was  the  first  to  recognize 
this  need  and  in  1888  appointed  as  inspector  of  schools, 
Rev.  Wm.  J.  Degnan,  D.  D.17  Other  dioceses  throughout 
the  country  have  followed  this  example  until  at  the 
present  day  there  are  about  forty-three  superintendents. 
Many  of  these  men  have  received  their  training  in  the 
Department  of  Education  at  the  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington,  D.  C.  The  duties  and  function 
of  the  diocesan  superintendent  are  ably  put  forth  in  the 
following  words  of  a  member  of  the  Department  of 
Education,  Catholic  University:  "The  superintendent 
is  an  executive,  to  be  sure,  and  an  administrator;  he  is 
likewise,  to  some  extent,  an  inspector.  But  these  duties 
are  but  secondary  to  his  real  work.  He  is  more  than  a 
judge  of  schools  and  teachers;  he  is,  in  the  truest  sense 
of  the  word,  an  educator.  The  whole  diocese,  bishops, 
priests,  teachers,  and  people  look  to  him  for  leadership 
in  all  that  affects  the  school.  The  future,  as  well  as  the 
present,  of  the  diocesan  system  rests  with  him.  His 
must  be  the  vision  required  to  recognize  the  greater 
things  that  can  be  accomplished  and  the  judgment  neces- 
sary to  choose  the  proper  means.  It  is  not  such  a  great 
task  to  organize  the  educational  facilities  of  a  diocese 
and  to  develop  some  kind  of  a  working  system,  but  it  is  a 
tremendous  task  to  organize  a  system  that  is  living,  that 
is  built  on  principle  and  not  on  prescription,  that  has 
within  itself  the  power  of  growth  and  development.  Thus, 
for  example,  any  one  can  sit  down,  and  with  the  aid  of 
paste  and  scissors,  work  out  a  fairly  decent  course  of 
studies  to  which  all  the  teachers  of  the  system  must 
strictly  conform.  But  to  recognize  that  a  course  of 
studies  must  be  real  and  vital;  that  it  is  a  means  and 


16.  Burns,  J.  A.,  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Catholic  School 
System  in  the  United  States,  1912,  New  York,  p.  206. 

17.  Hid.  p.  206. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        41 

not  an  end ;  that  it  must  be  elastic  and  adaptable  to  meet 
the  varying  needs  of  children  and  communities;  that 
while  it  gives  adequate  direction,  it  should  never  cramp 
that  most  precious  of  our  educational  assets,  the  initia- 
tive and  individuality  of  the  teacher — all,  of  this  requires 
a  grasp  of  educational  principles  that  cannot  be  achieved 
in  passing,  a  quality  of  knowledge  that  is  the  fruit  of 
much  concentration  on  a  rather  wide  number  of  sub- 
jects."** 

The  need  of  a  superintendent  in  a  diocese  which  is 
largely  rural  is  even  more  urgent  than  in  a  diocese  which 
is  urban,  because  in  the  latter  case  there  is  some  inter- 
communication of  ideas  and  methods  of  teaching,  while 
in  the  rural  districts  each  school  forms  an  isolated  unit 
and  very  little  interchange  of  methods  or  ideas  is 
possible.  The  lack  of  properly  qualified  superintendents 
in  rural  dioceses  constitutes  one  of  the  main  drawbacks 
in  Catholic  rural  educational  activity  and  unless  these 
dioceses  are  properly  supplied  with  men  who  have  had  a 
technical  training,  there  is  little  hope  for  Catholic  rural 
education. 

In  a  large  'diocese  one  superintendent  will  find  it 
impossible  to  supervise  efficiently  all  the  schools  under 
his  control.  This  condition  of  affairs  necessitates  the 
appointment  of  another  man,  or  perhaps  two  men,  to 
assist  the  superintendent.  The  Archdiocese  of  New  York 
at  present  has  three  men  who  devote  their  time  to  school 
work,  one  of  whom  confines  his  activities  to  schools 
located  in  rural  districts.  In  the  near  future,  we  hope 
that  other  dioceses  will  follow  this  example. 

Another  very  important  officer  for  the  organization 
and  supervision  of  Catholic  rural  schools  is  the  com- 
munity inspector.  Almost  every  religious  congregation 


18.  Johnson,  George,  "The  Training  of  the  Diocesan  Superintendent," 
Catholic  Educational  Eeview,  Washington,  D.  C.,  p.  127. 


42        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

that  has  schools  in  cities  and  large  towns  has  its  com- 
munity inspector  but  the  presence  of  such  an  officer  in 
rural  districts  is  still  to  be  hoped  for.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  Western  dioceses,  but  indications  point  to 
improvement  in  this  regard.  The  duty  of  the  community 
inspector  is  to  keep  the  Superiors  of  the  religious 
teaching  orders  in  touch  with  the  schools  which  they 
control,  "with  the  individual  teachers  employed  and 
with  educational  methods  in  general  *  '  The  inspector 
is  not  a  mere  delegate  or  examiner  but  rather  a  sort  of 
general  school  officer  of  the  teaching  body,  whose  whole 
time  is  spent  in  visiting  schools,  reporting  on  conditions 
and  persons,  and  whose  knowledge  thus  acquired  is  of 
great  advantage  for  the  future  placing  of  teachers  and 
the  further  development  of  works.  "19  All  admit  the 
necessity  of  an  inspector  in  city  schools  and  the  reasons 
advocated  for  the  presence  of  such  an  officer  there,  might 
well  be  adduced  to  establish  the  need  in  rural  schools. 
Such  community  inspectors  are  even  more  necessary  for 
the  little  school,  situated  in  remote  districts;  for  each 
school  is  isolated  and  the  superintendent  is  able  to  visit 
the  school  only  once  a  year;  hence  the  individual  school 
is  practically  deprived  of  any  kind  of  supervision. 

PART  III.  VARIOUS  SUBSTITUTES. 

There  is  one  other  matter  which  we  wish  to  touch 
on  before  concluding  this  chapter  on  Catholic  rural 
schools.  It  will  be  some  time  before  there  are  parochial 
school  facilities  for  every  Catholic  child,  not  only  in  the 
country  but  also  in  the  city.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
fifty  per  cent  of  our  Catholic  children  do  not  attend 
Catholic  schools.  Whatever  religious  instruction  they 
receive  depends  on  the  initiative  of  the  local  pastor  and 
in  many  instances  the  children  grow  up  ignorant  of  the 

19.  Saner,  George  H.,  Proceedings  of  the  Catholic  Educational  Asso* 
dation,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  1,  1916,  p.  358. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        43 

fundamental  truths  of  the  Catholic  religion.  There  are 
many  localities  throughout  the  country,  especially  in 
rural  districts,  where  the  priest  visits  only  once  or  twice 
during  the  year  and  his  work  then  is  generally  limited  to 
the  administration  of  the  Sacraments.  There  is  very 
little  opportunity  for  him  to  give  catechetical  instruction 
and  the  children  in  these  places  are  in  many  cases  lost 
to  the  Faith.  To  meet  this  difficulty  various  means  have 
been  devised.  Some  of  these  activities  deserve  com- 
mendation and  we  propose  to  consider  them  briefly. 

In  the  Archdiocese  of  Chicago,  under  the  leadership 
of  Rev.  John  M.  Lyons  S.  J.,  the  Catholic  Instruction 
League  was  organized  in  1912.  The  main  object  of  the 
League  is  to  instruct  in  Christian  Doctrine  Catholic 
children  whom  the  parochial  school  cannot  reach  and  also 
working  boys  and  girls  and  even  adults  who  may  be  in 
need  of  such  instruction.^  The  League  is  a  lay  organ- 
ization under  the  direction  of  priests  and  the  instruction 
proper  is  given  by  lay  workers,  men  and  women.  Since 
its  organization  in  Chicago  in  1912  it  has  extended  to 
the  dioceses  of  Milwaukee,  Omaha,  Duluth,  Davenport, 
Fort  Wayne,  Bismarck  and  Rockford.^ 

The  extent  'of  the  work  can  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  from  1912  to  1917  in  Chicago,  6000  children  have 
been  prepared  for  First  Holy  Communion/*  In  the 
Diocese  of  Bismarck,  North  Dakota,  which  is  a  typical 
rural  diocese,  the  League  is  well  established  and  is 
accomplishing  splendid  results.  Bishop  Wehrle  of 
Bismarck  in  a  letter  to  the  priests  of  his  diocese  says 
'  '  Means  must  be  found  to  gather  all  Catholic  children 
of  every  mission  on  all  Sundays  of  the  year  for  religious 
instruction.  Where  the  priest  cannot  give  this  weekly 
instruction  let  him  select  some  persons  who  will  act  as 

20.  Lyons,  John  M.;  Practical  Plan  of  the  Catholic  Instruction  League, 
Chicago,  p.  2,  1919. 

21.  Ibid.  p.  5. 

22.  Ibid.  p.  6. 


44        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

Sunday  School  Teachers.  .  .  .  Where  many  children 
live  far  from  church,  organize  Sunday  Schools  in 
different  parts  of  the  missions,  so  that  every  child  can 
reach  the  place  of  instruction  without  difficulty.  Catholic 
families  are  glad  to  offer  their  homes  for  such  pur- 
poses. "gs 

The  Diocese  of  Pittsburgh  solves  the  problem  of 
catechetical  instruction  through  an  organization  known 
as  the  "Missionary  Confraternity  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine/' The  Society  is  composed  of  laymen  and  women 
who  are  banded  together  for  the  purpose  of  organizing 
and  conducting  catechism  classes  in  mining  towns,  rural 
districts  and  other  localities  where  there  are  Catholic 
children  in  need  of  religious  instruction.  The  organ- 
ization is  under  diocesan  control  with  headquarters  in 
Pittsburgh.  The  activities  of  this  Society  from  Novem- 
ber, 1918  to  October,  1919  are  tabulated  as  follows : 

Catechism    classes    166 

Teachers 500 

Children  enrolled 14,010 

Average    attendance    9,000 

Children  prepared  for  First  Holy  Communion    1,592 

Children  received  First  Holy  Communion    1,695 

Children    Confirmed 566 

Children  and  adults  baptized   100 

Catholic  children  removed  from  Protestant  Sunday  Schools 1,000 

Fallen  away  Catholics  brought  back  to  the  Faith 62M 

The  annual  expenses  for  carrying  out  this  work  amounts 
to  about  $10,000.  This  includes  cost  of  transportation 
of  teachers,  hall  rent  for  catechism  centers  and  distri- 
bution of  catechisms.  The  teachers  receive  no  salary. 
The  expenses  are  met  by  voluntary  subscription. 

This  method  might  easily  be  adopted  in  other  dio- 
ceses where  there  are  outlying  districts  and  where  the 
Catholic  children  are  deprived  of  religious  instruction. 
The  work  should,  however,  be  under  diocesan  control  and 

23.  Quoted    in   "The    Teachers   Manual   of   the   Catholic    Instruction 
League,  Chicago,  p.  6. 

24.  Report  of  the  Missionary  Confraternity  of  Christian  Doctrine  of 
the  Pittsburgh  Diocese. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        45 

expenses  defrayed  by  diocesan  funds.  The  dependence 
on  voluntary  subscriptions  is  accompanied  by  difficulties 
and  efficiency  is  hindered.  In  every  diocese  there  might 
be  a  number  of  priests  appointed  who  would  instruct  lay 
catechists  in  the  truths  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  Supplied 
with  this  knowledge,  the  catechists  might  reach  regularly 
many  remote  remote  localities  where  the  priest  seldom 
visits. 

Another  method  of  imparting  religious  instruction 
is  through  the  medium  of  correspondence.  The  Diocese 
of  Helena,  Montana,  during  the  summer  of  1921,  opened 
such  a  correspondence  course  in  Religion.  The  object 
and  method  of  the  plan  is  explained  in  the  following 
words — "This  First  Communion  Catechism  Correspon- 
dence Course  has  been  devised  to  give  children  whom 
the  pastor  cannot  teach  regularly  an  opportunity  to  pre- 
pare for  their  First  Holy  Communion  and  Confirmation. 
The  pastor  will  send  out  one  lesson  weekly.  The  chil- 
dren, with  the  assistance  of  parents  or  friends,  will 
read  the  story  part  of  the  lesson,  study  the  picture, 
answer  the  proposed  questions  on  printed  question  sheet. 
They  will  then  return  the  questions  and  written  answers 
to  their  pastor  to  prove  that  they  have  studied  the  lesson, 
and  finally  they  will  memorize  the  questions  and  answers, 
and  prayers  printed  in  blackfaced  type  at  the  end  of 
each  lesson.  They  are  also  asked  to  keep  the  lesson 
thus  learned  in  the  cover  sent  at  the  beginning  of  the 
course.  The  pastor  will  examine  the  answers  and  correct 
them,  if  necessary.  He  will  return  the  corrected  paper 
to  the  pupil  with  the  proper  marks.  This  paper  the 
pupil  will  send  back  with  the  answers  to  the  next  lesson 
and  the  pastor  will  file  the  same  for  the  inspection  of 
the  bishop. '  '®5  The  Course  comprises  twelve  lessons ;  each 
lesson  is  divided  into  four  parts.  First  there  is  an  in- 

25.  First   Communion  Catechism   Correspondence  Course  adopted  for 
the  Diocese  of  Helena,  1921. 


46        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

struction  on  some  religious  truth,  then  follows  a  picture 
depicting  or  illustrating  the  instruction;  then  a  prayer 
and  lastly  a  story  illustrating  some  virtue.  This  method 
has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  It  will  reach 
children  who  are  deprived  of  religious  instruction  and 
afford  them  some  knowledge  of  religious  truths.  It 
assumes  however  that  the  child  is  able  to  write  in  order 
to  answer  the  question.  Many  children  are  unable  to 
write  at  the  age  when  they  receive  First  Holy  Com- 
munion. Again,  effective  instruction  depends  to  a  great 
extent  on  the  person  who  is  giving  the  lesson;  in  this 
method,  the  written  word  replaces  the  spoken  word  and 
here  also  is  a  disadvantage/6  The  plan  is  still  in  the 
stage  of  experimentation  and  at  present  we  are  unable 
to  gauge  results. 

The  Catholic  rural  school  can  contribute  much  to 
the  solution  of  the  rural  problem  provided  it  is  properly 
organized  and  supervised.  Organization  and  super- 
vision are  two  essentials  for  any  educational  institution 
and,  especially,  for  rural  schools  that  are  located  in 
remote  districts.  Our  Catholic  schools  in  the  city  enjoy 
a  fair  degree  of  organization  and  supervision,  due  to 
the  fact  that  we  have  centered  our  attention  on  urban 
education.  In  the  near  future,  we  hope  the  same  will 
be  true  of  rural  education.  The  gradual  increase  of 
diocesan  superintendents  throughout  the  country  augurs 
well  for  the  future  of  Catholic  education  in  the  United 
States.  With  a  rural  school  system  efficiently  supervised 
and  properly  organized,  the  Catholic  Church  can  answer 
the  call  to  rural  action  and  accomplish  wonderful  results. 


26.  Bagley,  William  C.,  Educative  Process,  New  York,  p.  267. 


The  Rural  ProWem  and  the  Catholic  School        47 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PREPARATION  AND  QUALIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN 
THE  CATHOLIC  RURAL  SCHOOL 

The  most  important  factor  in  any  school  is  the 
teacher.  With  capable,  well  trained  teachers,  the  success 
of  almost  any  school  is  assured.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
teachers  who  are  incapable,  lacking  professional  knowl- 
edge and  skill,  no  school,  however  rich  in  material 
equipment  or  in  courses  of  study,  can  hope  to  accomplish 
the  end  for  which  it  was  intended.  Such  a  school  may 
even  do  positive  harm;  it  will  retard  the  pupil's  mental 
development  and  give  him  a  wrong  impression  of  the 
meaning  of  education.  The  evils  that  have  resulted  from 
the  presence  of  incompetent  persons  in  the  teaching 
profession  have  caused  the  various  States  to  enact  laws 
defining  the  qualifications  the  prospective  teachers  shall 
possess  before  they  are  permitted  to  enter  the  classroom. 
The  Catholic  church  likewise,  has  realized  the  importance 
of  trained  teachers  and  has  enacted  legislation  pertain- 
ing to  teacher  preparation  and  normal  training. 

Since  the  school  has  been  established  by  the  State 
for  the  purpose  of  educating  future  citizens,  each  child 
within  the  State  has  the  right  to  as  good  an  education 
and  as  competent  a  teacher  as  the  State  can  afford.  The 
lack  of  untrained  teachers  is  one  of  the  difficulties  that 
confronts  American  educators.  The  National  Education 
Association  in  Commission  Series,  No.  3,  informs  us  that 
"of  the  600,000  public  school  teachers  in  the  United 
States,  200,000  have  had  less  than  four  years  beyond  the 
eighth  grade;  300,000  have  had  no  special  professional 
preparation  for  teaching ;  65,000  are  teaching  on  permits, 
not  being  able  to  meet  the  minimum  requirements  of  the 


48        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

county  superintendents;  of  the  twenty  million  children 
in  the  United  States,  ten  million  are  taught  by  teachers 
who  have  had  no  special  preparation  for  their  work  and 
whose  general  education  is  clearly  inadequate.'^  To 
overcome  this  deficiency  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion advocates  higher  salaries  for  trained  teachers  and 
higher  academic  and  professional  requirements,  thereby 
excluding  the  incompetent. 

In  the  Catholic  system  there  are  no  statistics  avail- 
able by  which  we  may  judge  of  the  competency  of  the 
men  and  women  who  are  actually  engaged  in  teaching, 
but  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  teacher  preparation 
and  training  could  be  greatly  improved. 

In  discussing  the  teacher  in  the  rural  school  many 
questions  present  themselves.  We  shall  however  confine 
ourselves  to  a  consideration  of  certification,  her  profes- 
sional training,  and  her  relation  to  the  home.  As  regards 
certification  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  in  detail  the 
various  methods  now  employed  but  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  indicate  some  of  the  deficiencies  in  the  different  plans. 
The  diversity  of  requirements  in  the  various  states  has 
proven  an  obstacle  to  many  teachers.  It  tends  to 
patronize  "home  talent"  and  to  exclude  teachers  from 
other  States.  Again  the  absence  of  reciprocal  relations 
between  the  States  in  the  matter  of  certification  is  often 
a  handicap  to  teachers. 

The  following  States  do  not  recognize  certificates 
granted  in  other  States :  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  North 
Dakota,  West  Virginia,  Louisiana  and  Florida.  Colo- 


1.  Commission  Series  of  the  National  Education  Association,  No.  3, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1919. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        49 

rado,  New  Hampshire,  Florida,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
Louisiana  and  West  Virginia  recognize  graduation  or 
credits  from  standard  institutions  outside  the  State/ 

The  necessity  of  universal  recognition  in  the  matter 
of  certificates  and  diplomas  is  paramount  for  the  cause 
of  American  education.  The  educational  requirements 
of  the  various  States  should  be  unified.  Each  State,  we 
grant,  has  the  right  to  set  its  own  standards ;  but  a  State 
with  low  requirements  cannot  expect  that  its  certificates 
will  be  honored  by  a  State  requiring  higher  standards. 
4 'It  is  possible  for  every  State  to  evaluate  the  credentials 
from  other  States  in  terms  of  its  own,  if  equivalents  are 
accepted  and  a  little  flexibility  allowed.  It  this  is  done 
it  is  then  possible  to  arrange  an  accredited  list  of  normal 
schools  in  and  credentials  from  other  States,  which  may 
be  accepted  by  the  local  certificating  authority  in  place 
of  an  examination.  A  fundamental  principle  should  be, 
that  the  certification  door  should  always  be  open  for 
competency  and  from  whatever  quarter  this  competency 
should  come."5  Localism,  or  the  employment  of  "home 
talent,"  is  the  result  of  non-recognition  of  diplomas  and 
certificates  issued  by  other  State  authorities.  It  is  one 
of  the  problems  that  the  Catholic  teaching  communities 
have  to  encounter  as  they  may  have  the  Motherhouse  or 
Community  Normal  in  one  State  where  their  certificate 
is  issued  but  when  they  are  sent  to  another  State  to 
teach,  their  certificate  is  not  recognized. 

As  already  stated,  the  Church,  like  the  State,  has 
recognized  the  importance  of  the  role  of  the  teacher  in 
the  classroom  and  has  laid  down  regulations  concerning 
their  competence  to  teach  in  the  parochial  schools.  In 


2.  Cook,  Katherine,  State  Laws  and  Regulations  Governing  Teachers' 
Certificates,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1921, 
p.  30. 

3.  Cubberly,  E.  P.,  article  "Certification  of  Teachers"  Encyclopedia 
of  Education,  Vol.  I,  p.  562. 


50        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

1875  the  Propaganda  issued  an  "Instruction  to  the 
Bishops  of  the  United  States "  in  which,  after  enumer- 
ating the  dangers  to  which  the  Catholic  children  are 
liable  in  the  public  schools,  the  Congregation  exhorted 
the  bishops  to  establish  and  maintain  schools.  "Every 
effort  then,  must  be  directed  towards  starting  Catholic 
schools  where  they  are  not  and,  where  they  are,  towards 
enlarging  them  and  providing  them  with  better  accommo- 
dations and  equipment  until  they  have  nothing  to  suffer 
as  regards  teachers  and  equipment  by  comparison  with 
the  public  schools.  'u  This  instruction  formed  the  basis 
of  much  of  the  educational  legislation  of  the  Third 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1884.  Two  aims  the 
Fathers  of  the  Council  had  in  view  in  its  educational 
legislation,  the  increase  of  schools  and  the  perfecting  of 
them.  The  teacher,  they  realized,  made  the  school  and 
if  the  school  failed  to  prosper  and  make  progress  the 
blame  was  due  in  large  measure  to  the  incompetent 
teacher.  To  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  unqualified 
teacher  the  Council  issued  a  decree  which  provided  a 
central  examining  board  in  each  diocese  whose  duty  it 
was  to  examine  prospective  teachers  and  to  issue  certifi- 
cates to  the  successful  candidates.5  If  we  consider  that 
few  States  required  certificates  of  any  kind  at  this  time 
the  action  of  the  Council  in  demanding  certificates  of 
all  teachers  is  noteworthy.  After  the  promulgation  of 
this  decree  it  remained  for  the  bishops  to  enforce  this 
legislation  in  their  respective  dioceses.  Some  bishops 
appointed  examining  boards  who  faithfully  carried  out 
the  decrees  of  the  Council.  In  other  dioceses,  with  the 
introduction  of  the  superintendent  system,  the  certifica- 
tion and  examination  of  teachers  became  a  regular  phase 
of  the  work.  Much  good  has  been  accomplished  by  the 
above  mentioned  legislation,  but  we  are  of  'the  opinion 

4.  Instr.  S.  C.  S.  OFF.,  Nov.  24,  1875   (New  Collectanea,  N.  1449). 

5.  Acta  et  Decrcta,  III  Cone.  BALT.,  DEC.  N.  203. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        51 

that  at  the  present  time  some  new  means  must  be  devised 
to  meet  the  requirements  in  the  matter  of  certification. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  evident  that  the  day  is  not 
far  distant  when  the  State  will  demand  certification  of 
all  teachers,  whether  they  teach  in  public,  private  or 
parochial  schools.  The  States  of  Nebraska  and  Arkansas 
are  demanding  State  certification  of  parochial  school 
teachers  and  indications  point  to  similar  legislation  in 
other  States.  Some  Catholic  educators  would  have  our 
teachers  meet  State  laws  and  regulations  in  obtaining 
their  certificates.  Some  would  go  further  and  have  our 
teachers  undergo  the  same  preparation  as  public  school 
teachers.  While  there  are  a  number  who  favor  State 
certification  it  is  our  opinion  that  at  present  it  would 
be  unwise  to  accede  whole-heartedly  to  the  various  States 
and  ask  to  have  our  teachers  certified.  We  should  how- 
ever be  prepared  to  meet  the  situation  when  it  does 
arise.  The  following  plan  might  be  followed  with  some 
modifications  and  thus,  while  preserving  our  own 
autonomy,  we  can  at  the  same  time  be  prepared  to  meet 
future  legislation  in  the  matter  of  State  certification. 
"Certificates  might  be  issued  in  each  State  by  the  eccles- 
iastical authorities  of  that  State.  These  certificates 
would  render  the  recipient  eligible  to  teach  in  any 
parochial  school  of  that  State,  nor  would  a  Religious  be 
allowed  to  teach  in  the  schools  if  she  did  not  hold  such 
a  certificate.  Where  there  would  be  more  than  one 
diocese  in  the  State,  a  governing  body  would  be  formed, 
consisting  of  a  representative  of  each  bishop.  There 
would  likewise  be  an  advisory  committee  including  repre- 
sentatives of  the  various  communities  whose  Mother- 
houses  wore  in  the  State.  A  schedule  would  be  drawn 
up,  which  might  include  everything  that  the  State  de- 
mands and  more.  Certificates  would  be  issued  upon  the 
successful  passing  of  an  examination  that  would  be 
prepared  by  the  governing  board  and  administered  by 


52        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

the  local  authorities  in  each  diocese.  Provision  might 
be  made,  because  of  present  exigencies,  to  grant  tem- 
porary, renewable  certificates  to  teachers  in  service  who 
have  not  had  the  advantage  of  completing  their  normal 
course  before  going  out  to  teach.  Exemption  would  only 
be  made  in  the  case  of  those  teachers  who  have  completed 
a  certain  term  of  successful  experience."6  With  this 
plan  in  operation  we  would  have  an  effective  and 
standardized  method  of  issuing  certificates  and  as  stable 
as  that  of  any  of  the  States.  The  State  authorities  would 
have  little  cause  for  interference  because  we  would  have 
evidence  that  the  standards  are  adhered  to.  If  the  above 
plan  were  carried  out  we  would  be  supplied  with  an 
efficient  means  of  certifying  our  teachers  and  preventing 
the  entrance  of  the  unqualified  aspirants.  This  plan, 
while  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  various  States, 
would  still  be  controlled  by  ecclesiastical  authorities. 

Another  very  important  problem  that  must  be  dealt 
with  in  regard  to  the  teaching  staff  in  the  Catholic  rural 
school  is  the  question  of  professional  preparation  or 
teacher-training.  The  chasm  between  the  immature,  un- 
developed child  and  the  social  heritage  of  the  race  is  to 
be  bridged  over  by  the  teacher.  She  is  to  act  as  inter- 
preter or  intermediary  between  the  immature  being  and 
the  vast  amount  of  subject  matter  crystallized  under  the 
form  of  the  curriculum.  Hence  to  meet  this  situation 
the  teacher  must  be  acquainted  with  the  child  mind,  its 
growth  and  development,  the  interests  and  activities  of 
the  individual,  if  success  is  to  be  assured.  This  idea  of 
the  function  of  the  teacher  has  given  rise  to  the  normal 
or  training  schools  for  teachers. 

Due  to  the  influence  of  Horace  Mann  the  first  State 
Normal  School  was  opened  at  Lexington,  Massachusetts, 

6.  Johnson,    George,   Proceedings   of   the   Catholic  Educational   Asso- 
ciation, Vol.  XVIII,  p.  391  (1921). 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        53 

in  1839.7  Since  that  time  the  normal  school  has  grown 
in  popular  favor.  "Now  every  State  and  territory  has 
its  public  and  private  normal  schools,  and  it  has  come 
to  be  generally  recognized  that  only  through  the  perfect- 
ing of  the  methods  of  the  normal  school  and  its  continued 
development,  together  with  a  wider  application  of  the 
fundamental  principles  for  which  it  stands,  can  we  hope 
to  add  to  or  even  maintain  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  thus  far  in  the  way  of  better  teaching  in  the 
elementary  school."* 

Years  before  Horace  Mann  emphasized  the  need  of 
normal  schools,  the  religious  communities,  following  the 
rule  laid  down  by  their  respective  founders  had  regularly 
established  normal  schools  for  their  prospective  teachers. 
In  the  normal  school,  the  novice  was  supposed  to  receive 
one  or  two  years  of  professional  training.  Often  the 
demand  for  teachers  exceeded  the  supply  and  the  un- 
trained teacher  was  sent  into  the  classroom,  ill-prepared 
and  in  many  cases  devoid  of  all  professional  training. 
The  curtailment  of  the  normal  course  was  not  the  only 
defect  in  the  community  training  schools.  While  the 
science  of  pedagogy  had  established  a  firm  foundation 
in  the  State  normals  it  was  not  fully  anchored  in  the 
novitiate  training  schools.  The  Third  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore,  cognizant  of  this  defect,  determined  to 
remedy  this  evil  and  stated  in  its  decrees  that  the  com- 
munity training  schools  are  "to  be  in  suitable  establish- 
ments, in  which  the  young  may  be  trained  by  skillful  and 
experienced  teachers,  during  a  sufficient  period  of  time 
.  .  .  in  the  various  studies  and  sciences,  in  Method  and 
Pedagogy.  "9  The  communities  endeavored  to  make 
amends  for  the  defects  in  the  training  of  teachers  and 


7.  Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,  Vol.  V,  Boston,  p.  220. 

8.  Burns,  James  A.,  The  Training  of  the  Teacher,  Philadelphia,  1904, 
p.  11. 

9.  Con.  Plen.  Bait.  Ill,  Acta  et  Decreta,  N.  205,  Baltimore,  1886. 


54        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

reform  was  obtained  in  the  larger  communities.  In  the 
smaller  teaching  Sisterhoods  conditions  were  bettered 
to  some  extent  and  they  accomplished  as  much  as  pos- 
sible under  adverse  circumstances.  Much  good  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  legislation  of  the  Council  but  we  are 
still  far  from  the  ideal  in  regard  to  normal  training. 
Our  religious  teachers  are  striving  to  the  utmost  to  meet 
the  demands  of  ecclesiastical  and  State  authorities,  but 
under  the  stress  of  circumstances,  unqualified  and  ill- 
prepared  teachers  are  still  sent  into  the  schools  and 
here  they  receive  training  in  the  school  of  experience, 
a  school  that  demands  an  excessive  fee  both  from  the 
teacher  and  the  pupils. 

Many  communities,  and  especially,  the  smaller,  find 
it  impossible  to  support  and  maintain  a  community 
normal  because  of  the  lack  of  trained  teachers  and 
necessary  equipment.  The  following  plan  with  some 
modifications  could  be  employed  in  many  of  the  States 
or  ecclesiastical  provinces  and  special  consideration 
might  be  given  to  prospective  rural  teachers  in  these 
establishments.  Under  this  method,  the  question  of 
financial  support,  faculty  for  the  training  schools  and 
the  necessary  equipment  could  easily  be  solved.  To  meet 
the  problem  of  teacher  training  we  propose  a  system  of 
provincial  normal  schools  for  religious  teachers  under 
control  of  ecclesiastical  authority  and  supported  by  the 
various  ecclesiastical  provinces.  We  advocate  provincial 
rather  than  diocesan  normals  because  many  of  the  smaller 
dioceses  would  find  it  difficult  to  support  a  normal,  where- 
as, if  several  dioceses  combine  in  supporting  a  school  of 
this  nature  the  burden  will  naturally  be  divided  and  no 
one  diocese  will  find  it  unbearable.  In  order  that  the 
religious  life  of  the  individual  be  not  interfered  with 
each  prospective  teacher  should  be  required  to  have 
completed  her  full  term  of  the  novitiate  before  she  is 
admitted  to  the  normal  school.  The  administration  of 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        55 

.  this  system  of  normal  schools  would  be  in  the  hands  of 
the  Archbishop  of  the  Province  together  with  the 
suffragan  Bishops.  The  faculty  would  be  drawn  from 
the  province;  if  possible  each  diocese  could  supply  one 
professor.  The  feasibility  of  having1  Sisters  on  the 
faculty  is  a  question  open  to  considerable  discussion  but 
it  seems  that  some  plan  might  be  devised  whereby  they 
could  assume  the  office  of  teaching.  Undoubtedly,  some 
of  the  best  talent  in  Catholic  educational  circles  is  to  be 
found  among  our  religious  teachers  and  it  seems  a  waste 
of  energy  to  have  this  ability  unused.  The  faculty  would 
have  to  be  of  such  a  calibre  that  the  individual  teachers 
would  have  special  preparation  in  the  subjects  that  they 
are  called  upon  to  teach.  The  funds  necessary  for  the 
support  and  maintenance  would  be  met  by  the  respective 
dioceses  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  students  they 
send  to  the  normal  school.  As  regards  the  religious  life 
of  the  prospective  teachers  while  they  are  pursuing  their 
studies  at  this  proposed  institution,  it  would  be  much 
the  same  as  it  is  at  the  Catholic  Sisters '  College  at  the 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C.  It 
would  be  preferable  for  each  community  to  have  its  own 
house  of  study,  situated  in  close  proximity  to  the  normal 
school,  to  ensure  the  proper  religious  spirit  for  their 
subjects  and  also  for  the  convenience  of  the  students. 

The  curriculum  of  the  normal  school  will  take  into 
consideration  the  requirements  of  the  State  in  which  it 
is  situated.  Assistance  could  be  obtained  in  this  regard 
from  the  Digest  of  State  Laws  prepared  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council. 
The  course  of  study  should  place  special  emphasis  on 
the  professional  equipment  of  the  prospective  teacher. 
To  ensure  this,  entrance  requirements  would  be  insisted 
upon  and  no  one  admitted  unless  she  can  present  satis- 
factory evidence  of  having  completed  a  standard  high 
school  course. 


56        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

The  course  of  study  would  in  general  outline  take 
the  following  form: 

I.  Psychology,  Educational  and  Social;  Philos- 
ophy of  Education;  History  of  Education;  School 
Administration  and  Management  and  a  Study  of  the 
School  laws  of  the  respective  States. 

II.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  the  following  sub- 
jects : 

(A)  Keligion,    Christian    Doctrine    and    Bible 
History. 

(B)  English,  Mathematics,  Science,  Art,  ,His- 
tory  and  Geography. 

Since  we  are  interested  in  the  teacher  of  the  rural 
schools,  the  normal  will  take  cognizance  of  the  Sister 
whose  work  will  be  in  these  schools.  We  admit  that 
there  are  common  interests  between  rural  and  city 
peoples;  that  the  course  of  study  in  their  schools  will 
have  many  elements  in  common ;  but  there  are  important 
differences  in  occupation  and  environment.  Hence  there 
will  be  a  difference  in  the  method  of  instruction;  the 
subject  matter  of  the  curriculum  will  have  to  be  attacked 
from  a  different  angle ;  and  the  problems  of  the  country 
child  and  of  rural  people  in  general  will  have  to  be  under- 
stood if  the  teacher  is  to  do  effective  work  in  the  class- 
room. In  order  that  the  rural  teacher  may  become  a  real 
impelling  force  in  a  community,  and  contribute  her  part 
of  the  rehabilitation  of  the  country  school,  she  must  be 
prepared  in  a  special  manner  in  the  normal  school.  The 
following  subjects  should  therefore  receive  special  con- 
sideration: Nature  Study;  Elementary  Principles  of 
Agriculture;  Sanitary  Science  and  Hygiene;  Domestic 
Science  and  a  Survey  of  Rural  Sociology. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        57 

The  course  in  Nature  Study  furnishes  a  starting 
point  for  the  rural  teacher's  special  training  and  it  like- 
wise offers  a  foundation  for  a  course  in  Elementary 
Agriculture.  Thru  experience  man  learns  that  he  must 
cope  with  other  living  forms,  some  of  which  are  his 
friends  and  other  his  enemies ;  some  that  are  a  constant 
help  in  attaining  life  purposes  and  others  that  are 
opposed  to  him;  and  in  order  to  make  the  most  of  life 
it  is  necessary  to  know  what  living  things  are  doing  in 
order  to  form  proper  attitudes.  The  aim  of  Nature  Study 
is  to  acquaint  the  child  with  the  living  things  in  Nature 
that  influence  human  life.  The  following  aims  should  be 
kept  in  view  in  the  Course  of  Nature  Study: 

I.  To  afford  a  knowledge  of  Nature ; 

II.  To  acquaint  man  with  the  useful  and  harm- 
ful in  nature; 

III.  To  form  a  basis  for  the  study  of  agricul- 
ture; 

IV.  To  make  the  individual  realize  the  goodness 
and  omnipotence  of  God  towards  His  creatures. 

The  subject  matter  would  embrace  a  study  of: 

I.  Bird    Life,    both    the    harmful    and    useful 
species;  their  habits;  protection  and  their  economic 
value  to  the  community. 

II.  A    study    of   insects;    harmful    and    useful 
species. 

III.  Study  of  plant  life  including  the  economic 
and  aesthetic  phases. 


58        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 
Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture : 

Using  the  basis  furnished  by  Nature  Study  this 
branch  would  include  a  study  of: 

I.  The   Soil,  from  a  chemical,   geological  and 
physical  viewpoint;  its  constituents,  depletion,  con- 
servation and  preparation  for  seed. 

II.  Seeds;     principles    determining     selection; 
germination  tests;  forage  and  filed  seeds;  also   a 
study  of  the  weeds  both  useful  and  noxious. 

III.  Live  stock,  embracing  the  different  varie- 
ties and  their  respective  economic  values. 

IV.  Study  of  Trees;  the  orchard;  the  economic 
and  aesthetic  aspects. 

Sanitary  Science  and  Hygiene: 

There  is  an  opinion  prevalent  amongst  the  American 
people  that  the  open  country  is  a  place  singularly  free 
from  the  ravages  of  disease  and  sickness.  In  theory, 
the  open  country  is  a  healthier  place  to  live  in ;  but,  due 
to  the  absence  of  organized  health  controls,  disease  takes 
its  toll  because  of  the  ignorance  of  those  afflicted.  The 
ravages  of  the  Hookworm  disease  in  the  South  with  its 
attendant  ills  emphasize  the  need  of  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  health  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  good 
health  of  the  pupil  is  of  fundamental  importance  in 
education  and  much  retardation  and  other  mental  defects 
can  be  traced  to  an  inadequate  understanding  of  the 
elementary  laws  of  health.  If  the  school  is  to  prepare 
for  complete  living  the  welfare  of  the  body  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  and  it  devolves  on  the  teacher  to  be 
fully  prepared  to  go  into  a  community,  armed  with  the 
latest  discoveries  of  medical  and  sanitary  science,  not 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        59 

only  to  teach  the  children  the  rudiments  of  sanitary 
knowledge  but  also  to  implant  in  them  habits  and  appre- 
ciations of  the  fundamentals  of  health  preservation. 


Rural  Sociology: 

This  subject  represents  an  innovation  in  most 
normal  schools  and  institutions  for  the  training  of  rural 
teachers.  For  many  teachers  both  in  the  Catholic  and 
State  systems  the  first  experience  in  rural  life  begins 
when  they  are  appointed  to  teach  in  the  open  country. 
They  have  lived  in  an  urban  atmosphere  and  their 
interests  are  centered  there,  and  it  takes  some  time 
before  they  realize  the  difference  between  the  environ- 
ment of  country  and  city  children.  To  reach  the  heart 
of  the  child;  to  understand  his  difficulties  as  well  as  the 
problems  that  confront  country  people  in  general,  the 
prospective  teacher  should  have  some  acquaintance  with 
Rural  Sociology  and  Economics. 

One  defect  in  nearly  all  our  Catholic  normals  at 
present  is  the  absence  of  the  " model' '  or  " practice " 
schools.  In  most  of  our  normals  the  teacher  is  given  a 
rather  good  course  theoretically,  but  no  opportunity  is 
afforded  her  to  try  out  the  principles  learned  in  the  lec- 
ture room.  She  must  go  into  the  school,  experiment  on 
the  pupils,  and  note  their  reactions.  Sometimes  this 
mode  of  procedure  consumes  time  and  energy  both  for 
the  pupil  and  the  teacher.  In  any  proposed  scheme  of 
normal  schools,  whether  they  be  community,  diocesan 
or  provincial,  the  place  of  the  "model"  school  should 
be  emphasized.  The  school  should  be  a  model  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  term,  in  regard  to  architecture,  sani- 
tary requirements,  administrative  staff  and  properly 
qualified  teachers.  The  actual  erection  and  support  of  a 
model  school  would  entail  little  expense  in  a  system  of 
provincial  normals,  as  the  burden  would  be  borne  by  the 


60        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

various  dioceses;  and  greater  effectiveness  would  be 
secured  when  such  schools  are  properly  equipped  and 
supplied. 

A  system  of  normal  schools  established  on  the  pro- 
vincial plan  would  afford  the  necessary  preparation  for 
prospective  teachers  in  Catholic  rural  schools.  In  estab- 
lishing a  system  of  such  normals,  two  facts  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  1.  Each  community,  either 
through  tradition  or  otherwise,  tends  to  have  its  own 
methods  of  teacher  preparation.  2.  The  different  com- 
munities invariably  overlap  diocesan  and  provincial 
boundaries.  It  follows  that  the  provincial  normal  should 
be  strictly  neutral,  that  is,  not  under  the  control  of  any 
particular  teaching  community,  but  rather  under  the  jur- 
isdiction of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  province. 

All  educational  agencies,  Catholic  and  State,  are 
clamoring  for  more  and  better  teachers.  The  lack  of 
properly  qualified  teachers  is  found  in  both  systems. 
Any  attempt  to  solve  the  rural  problem  from  a  Catholic 
educational  viewpoint  must  of  necessity  regard  the  ques- 
tion of  teacher  training  and  preparation.  In  addition  to 
training,  another  important  element  is  required  in  order 
that  the  teacher  in  the  rural  school  meet  with  success. 
She  must  be  in  sympathy  with  life  in  the  open  country. 
She  must  really  feel  that  her  call  to  teach  in  the  small 
parish  schools  is  as  important  as  the  work  in  a  large  city 
parish. 

For  the  public  school  teacher  it  is  often  a  matter  of 
economic  concern  where  she  teaches,  but  for  the  religious 
teacher  it  is  a  matter  that  finds  expression  in  the  very 
life  that  she  leads.  The  soul  of  the  country  child  is  just 
as  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  the  Creator  as  the  soul  of  the 
child  in  the  city,  and  the  work  of  teaching  in  the  rural 
school  is  just  as  important  and  meritorious  as  in  any 
other  place.  The  Catholic  teacher  will  play  a  large  rol<? 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        61 

in  the  rehabilitation  of  rural  America;  but,  to  play  this 
part,  she  must  be  prepared  to  do  her  work  efficiently  and 
in  the  right  spirit. 

In  the  rural  school,  where  the  number  of  children  is 
usually  smaller  than  in  the  city  school,  the  teacher  can 
enter  into  closer  relationship  with  the  home.  The  school 
can  greatly  increase  its  influence  by  taking  parents  into 
its  confidence,  and  the  teacher  can  increase  her  efficiency 
when  she  understands  the  home  conditions  of  the  child 
and  the  difficulties  which  the  parents  have  to  meet  in 
every-day  life.  To  come  to  an  understanding  of  the  re- 
spective duties  of  the  home  land  school,  the  teachers 
could  either  visit  the  home  or  meet  the  parents  and  dis- 
cuss matters  that  have  an  intimate  bearing  on  the  life 
of  the  school.  To  bring  about  better  accord  and  more 
effective  cooperation  between  the  home  and  school, 
organizations  known  as  Parent-Teacher  Associations  or 
Mother's  Clubs  should  be  encouraged.  The  Parent- 
Teacher  Association  "is  an  organization  seeking  to  re- 
store the  understanding  between  the  home  and  the  school 
which  existed  in  the  early  days  of  our  public  school  sys- 
tem when  the  teacher,  in  lieu  of  a  living  salary,  '  boarded 
round.'  After  spending  a  week  or  a  month  with  the 
families  from  which  his  pupils  came,  the  teacher  could 
understand  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  children  and 
could  work  more  intelligently  with  them;  through  this 
contract,  also,  the  parents  understood  what  the  teachers 
wanted  to  accomplish  through  the  school  agency,  while 
the  child  himself,  knowing  that  this  understanding  ex- 
isted, fell  into  harmonious  action  with  the  cooperating 
forces  about  him. 

Since  that  day  a  chasm  has  gradually  developed  be- 
tween the  home  and  the  school,  and  to  bridge  this  chasm 


62        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

the   Parent-Teacher   Association   has    come   into    exis- 
tence. 


The  various  Catholic  women's  organizations  in  con- 
junction with  their  pastor  and  teachers  can  accomplish 
much  in  solving  problems  that  have  an  intimate  bearing 
on  the  training  of  the  child  and,  with  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  relationship  of  home  and  school,  the 
Catholic  rural  teacher  can  increase  her  efficiency  a  hun- 
dredfold. 


10.  Handbook    of    The    Parent-Teacher    Associations    and    Mother*' 
Circles,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1921,  p.  2. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        63 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  CURRICULUM  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  BUBAL  SCHOOL 

The  efficiency  of  the  Catholic  rural  school  depends 
upon  three  factors,  the  parish  priest,  the  teacher  and 
the  curriculum.  We  have  discussed  the  first  two  in  pre- 
vious chapters  and  now  we  propose  to  consider  the  third, 
namely,  the  Curriculum.  The  Curriculum  is  the  means 
by  which  the  aim  of  education  is  achieved  and  will  differ 
according  to  the  end  set  forth  by  the  philosophy  which 
underlies  a  particular  system  of  education.  The  aim  of 
Catholic  education  has  been  clearly  stated  by  the  late 
Reverend  Dr.  Thomas  E.  Shields  in  the  following  words : 
"The  unchanging  aim  of  Christian  education  is,  and 
always  has  been,  to  put  the  pupil  in  possession  of  a  body 
of  truth  derived  from  nature  and  from  divine  revelation, 
from  the  concrete  work  of  man's  hand,  and  from  the 
content  of  human  speech,  in  order  to  bring  his  conduct 
into  conformity  with  Christian  ideals  and  the  standards 
of  the  civilization  of  his  day."1  This  statement  of  the 
aim  of  Catholic  education  is  a  conclusion  derived  from 
the  principles  enumerated  in  Chapter  II,  where  we  dis- 
cussed the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  Catholic 
rural  school.  The  ultimate  aim,  then,  of  the  Catholic 
rural  school  will  not  differ  from  the  aim  of  the  Catholic 
school  located  in  the  city ;  and  as  a  consequence  the  cur- 
riculum will  not  differ  substantially  in  the  two  types  of 
schools. 

The  above  definition  of  the  aim  of  Catholic  educa- 
tion indicates  the  source  of  the  subject  matter  of  the 
curriculum.  "The  food  required  for  the  nourishment 
and  development  of  man's  conscious  life  is  to  be  found 


1.  Shields,  Thomas  E.,  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  171. 


64        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

in  the  following  four  sources:  first,  in  the  truth  and 
beauty  and  goodness  of  the  Creator  as  reflected  in  na- 
ture; secondly,  in  the  direct  revelation  of  the  truth  and 
beauty  and  goodness  of  God  that  reaches  the  individual 
through  revealed  religion;  third,  in  art  regarded  as  the 
concrete  embodiment  of  human  thought  and  action; 
fourth,  in  the  manifestations  of  the  human  mind  and 
heart  that  reach  the  individual  through  the  arbitrary 
symbols  of  speech."* 

The  aim  of  Christian  education  places  proper  empha- 
sis on  the  various  needs  of  the  individual;  religious, 
moral,  intellectual,  social  and  physical.  It  likewise  takes 
into  consideration  the  demands  of  society  and  implies  a 
proper  recognition  of  the  utilitarian  and  cultural  ele- 
ments of  education. 

We  are  wont  to  consider  education  as  preparatory 
to  life;  this  attitude  has  characterized  the  traditional 
curriculum  since  Spencers'  time  with  the  result  that 
future  needs  were  given  the  precedence  over  present 
ones.  This  preparatory  character  of  the  curriculum  is 
quite  evident  when  we  examine  the  various  branches  of 
the  course  of  study.  The  "reader"  is  used  as  a  means 
of  preparing  the  child  to  read  later.  Spelling,  which 
has  been  closely  associated  with  reading,  is  taught  in 
anticipation  of  employing  such  words  as  the  pupil  may 
need  later  on  in  life.  In  fact,  this  idea  of  preparation 
is  still  dominant  in  many  of  the  texts  now  employed  in 
schools.  We  admit  that  the  school  subjects  are  prepara- 
tory but  this  characteristic  should  not  crowd  out  the 
present  needs  of  the  child.5 

2.  Ibid.  p.  43. 

3.  Junius  L.  Meriam  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  maintains   that 
the  traditional  curriculum  is  not  meeting  the  needs  of  modern  civilized 
life   and   a  new  vitalized   curriculum   should   be    devised   that    would   be 
related  more  closely  to  the  child's  life.     In  order  that  the  course  of  study 
meet  our  present  needs,  he  offers  five  principles  that  should  guide  educators 
in  curricula  formation. 

1.  The  curriculum  should  contribute  primarily  to  enabling  boys   and 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        65 

Bonser,  writing  on  the  curriculum  of  the  elemen- 
tary school,  says,  "The  curriculum  represents  the  experi- 
ences in  which  the  pupils  are  expected  to  engage  in 
school  and  the  general  order  of  sequence  in  which  these 
experiences  are  to  come.  Very  generally,  the  curriculum 
has  consisted  of  material  found  valuable  in  carrying  on 
life  activities  in  the  best  way,  but  it  has  been  presented 
apart  or  separate  from  the  uses  which  it  serves  in  these 
life  pursuits.  There  has  been  an  assumption  that  the 
activity  called  upon  was  learning  the  material  repre- 
sented by  the  curriculum  so  that  it  could  be  expressed 
in  oral  or  written  form.  The  school's  problems  were 
those  of  developing  a  small  number  of  skills  in  inter- 
preting symbols  and  expressing  meanings  by  their  use 
—reading,  spelling,  writing,  number,  drawing,  music; 
memorizing  the  content  t)f  some  text  books  as  in  geog- 
raphy, history  and  science;  and  of  conducting  some 
manual  activity  to  develop  dexterity  and  to  aid  in  the 
understanding  of  some  ideas  and  principles,  as  by  work 
in  laboratory,  shop  and  garden.  Many  of  these  elements, 
processes  and  principles  were  used  in  carrying  on  the 
real  activities  of  life  were  included  in  the  curriculum, 
but  without  relationship  to  the  activities  themselves."4 

This  description  of  the  curriculum  applies  in  a  very 
special  manner  to  the  rural  schools.  The  content  of  the 
course  of  study  has  not  only  been  selected  from  out-of- 


girls  to  be  efficient  in  what  they  are  now  doing,  only  secondarily  to  lie- 
paring  them  to  be  efficient  later. 

2.  The  curriculum  should  be  selected  directly  from  real  life  and  should 
be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  activities  and  the  environment  of  people. 

3.  The  curriculum  should  provide  for  great  scope  and  flexibility  to 
meet  individual  differences  in  interests  and  abilities. 

4.  The  curriculum  should  be  so  organized  that  it  will  admit  of  easy 
arrangement  of  the  schedule  for  any  day,  of  the  work  of  any  grade,  and 
even  of  the  transfer  of  work  from  grade  to  grade. 

5.  The  curriculum  should  lead  the  pupil  to  appreciate  both  work  and 
leisure,  and  to  develop  a  habit  of  engaging  in  both.     Meriam,  Junius  L., 
Child  Life  and  the  Curriculum,  1921,  P.  X. 

4.  Bonser,  Frederick  Gordon,  The  Elementary  School  Curriculum,  New 
York,  1921,  p.  2. 


66         The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

school  experiences  but  it  has  been  selected  from  the  life 
activities  of  the  city/  The  main  defect  in  rural  school 
curricula  is  that  we  have  taken  over  almost  in  its  entirety 
the  course  of  study  used  in  city  schools,  a  course  of 
study  that  was  intended  for  children  surrounded  by  ur- 
ban environment  and  destined  to  supply  urban  needs. 
The  result  has  been  that  boys  and  girls  living  in  the 
open  country  lose  interest  in  school  work,  become  dis- 
satisfied with  their  environment  and  wend  their  way  to 
the  city  because  of  the  fact  that  their  education  in  a 
large  measure  has  turned  them  from,  rather  than  to, 
the  country. 

Education  is  an  adjustment  between  the  individual 
and  his  environment.  Regarded  in  this  light  education 
must  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view;  that  of  the 
individual  who  is  to  be  adjusted  and  that  of  the  environ- 
ment in  which  he  moves.  Under  the  term  'environment  are 
included  the  religious,  moral,  physical  and  social  influ- 
ences that  affect  the  individual.  These  influences  are  con- 
stantly changing  and  education  must  take  cognizance  of 
this  dynamic  character  of  life  and  the  course  of  study 
must  change  to  meet  the  altered  condition.  When  life  was 
simple  the  curriculum  embraced  the  three  "R's."  Parker, 
writing  on  the  curriculum  used  in  the  Colonies,  says: 
"The  curriculum  of  the  American  Elementary  school 
down  to  the  American  Revolution  included  reading  and 
writing  as  the  fundamental  subjects,  with  perhaps  a  little 
arithmetic  for  the  more  favored  schools.  Spelling  was 
emphasized  toward  the  end  of  the  period.  The  subjects 
that  had  no  place  were  composition,  singing,  drawing, 
object  study,  physiology,  nature  study,  geography,  his- 
tory, secular  literature,  manual  training.  "^ 


5.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  American  Eural  School,  New  York,  1913,  p.  22. 

6.  Parker,  S.  C.,  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education,  New  York, 
1912,  p.  84. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        67 

After  the  War  of  1812,  the  urban  trend  became 
marked  and  the  great  industrial  centers  were  started. 
A  new  era  was  opened  that  changed  the  entire  social  and 
economic  life  of  the  country.     The  opening  and  settle- 
ment of  the  Northwest  and  the  beginnings  of  foreign 
commerce  gave  rise  to  a  need  of  geography,  and  by  1826 
it  became  a  part  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum.7 
The  desire  to  perpetuate  the  ideals  of  the  Revolution 
and  to  acquaint  the  foreign  element  that  was  flocking 
to  our  shores  with  the  principles  underlying  our  govern- 
ment, brought  about  the  introduction  of  United  States 
history.     In  fact  all  the  subjects  of  the  present  curric- 
ulum were  destined  to  supply  a  need  that  society  felt, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Nature  Study.     The  at- 
tempt to  meet  the  needs  of  society  is  characteristic  of 
only  the  urban  schools.    City  educational  systems  have 
taken  into  consideration  the  rapidly  changing  environ- 
ment of  American  life  and  have  attempted  to  meet  these 
altered    conditions    through  a  reconstructed  course  of 
study.    Rural  education,  on  the  contrary,  has  remained 
static  and  failed  to  adapt  itself  to  the  changed  conditions 
of  rural  life.    In  the  past  few  years,  wonderful  strides 
have  been  made  in  agriculture;  cooperative  enterprises 
are  gradually  developing  and  rural  life  is  losing  much 
of  its  drudgery  through  the  introduction  of  modern  con- 
veniences and  inventions.    If  the  school  is  to  keep  abreast 
of  these  advances,  the  beginning  is  to  be  made  in  a  new 
curriculum  that  is  based  on  rural  needs.    By  a  new  curric- 
ulum for  rural  schools  we  do  not  mean  that  the  course 
of  study  will  represent  an  entire  departure  from  city 
school  curricula.     The  subjects  taught  in  rural  schools 
will  not  and  should  not  differ  greatly  from  those  taught 
in  urban  schools ;  they  must,  however,  be  redirected  and 
made  more  applicable  to  rural  life. 


7.  Boston  Board  of  Supervisors,  School  Document,  No.  3,  1900. 


68        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

There  are  two  ways  of  drawing  up  a  curriculum  for 
rural  schools.  The  poorer  and  less  scientific  method  is 
what  is  known  as  the  *  *  paste  and  paper "  method.  This  is 
merely  copying  from  other  curricula  already  in  use  with- 
out regard  for  the  needs  of  the  locality  or  the  occupation 
of  the  people.  The  other  method,  which  is  more  scientific 
and  at  the  same  time  more  effective,  is  to  interpret  life 
objectives  and  life  needs  and  endeavor  to  have  the  curric- 
ulum meet  these  demands.  In  general,  men  engage  in 
five  lines  of  activity;  activities  that  have  reference  to 
health,  practical  efficiency,  citizenship,  leisure  and  re- 
ligion. For  the  Catholic,  the  last  named  activity  is  the 
basis  of  the  other  objectives  of  life.  The  curriculum  of 
the  Catholic  rural  school  should  therefore  meet  these 
fundamental  needs  of  man  in  order  that  the  individual 
may  become  an  efficient  member  of  the  social  group.  The 
evaluation  of  any  subject  in  the  Catholic  rural  school 
curriculum  depends  on  the  degree  that  it  contributes  to 
the  above  mentioned  life  activities.  To  meet  the  needs 
of  country  people,  the  various  subjects  have  to  take  into 
consideration  the  peculiar  circumstances  that  occur  in 
rural  life.  Health  conditions  in  most  rural  communities 
demand  radical  improvement.  To  meet  this  need,  the 
study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  must  be  redirected. 
Questions  that  relate  to  soil,  water  and  milk  pollution; 
contagious  diseases;  unsanitary  conditions  of  the  farm 
home,  etc.,  should  find  place  in  the  curriculum.  The  neg- 
lect of  the  school  in  regard  to  the  health  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  largely  responsible  for  the  extensive  spread  of 
the  Hookworm  disease  in  the  South,  and  the  prevalence 
of  typhoid  and  malaria  in  many  rural  sections. 

Physiology,  to  meet  rural  needs,  must  be  studied 
from  a  hygienic  rather  than  an  anatomical  viewpoint, 
"How  and  what  to  eat,  the  importance  of  fresh  air,  the 
nature  and  prevention  of  disease,  the  importance  of 
proper  attention  to  bodily  disorders,  and  the  evils  of 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        69 

intemperance  are  types  of  information  of  which  rural 
people  stand  in  particular  need,  and  boys  and  girls  on 
leaving  school  should  carry  such  practical  knowledge 
away  with  them  and  apply  it  to  their  lives. '  '8  The  health 
needs  of  a  rural  district  are  more  pressing  than  those  of 
an  urban  center  because,  in  the  latter  case,  the  individual 
is  guarded  by  boards  of  health  and  when  disease  afflicts 
him,  clinics  and  hospitals  are  at  his  service.  In  rural 
communities,  the  health  of  the  individual  depends  in  a 
large  measure  on  his  own  discretion.  Health  education 
to  be  effective  must  be  begun  in  the  elementary  grades. 
At  an  early  age  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  instill  correct 
health  habits.  "It  is  becoming  increasingly  evident  that 
we  have  begun  too  late  with  our  health  instruction.  The 
child  is  the  fittest  subject  in  which  to  instill  proper 
health  knowledge;  he  has  no  prejudices;  his  mind  is 
virgin  soil.  He  delights  in  the  knowledge  of  simple 
things  which  relate  to  his  daily  experience.  ...  In 
most  matters  habits  are  not  yet  formed  and  it  is  almost 
as  easy  to  form  good  habits  as  to  form  bad  ones."9 

A  redirection  in  the  tool  subjects  is  likewise  impera- 
tive. In  arithmetic,  problems  and  projects  should  be 
given  that  relate  to  rural  rather  than  urban  life;  more- 
over, much  of  the  matter  now  included  in  the  elementary 
course  of  study  could  be  eliminated  with  little  educational 
loss.  "During  the  first  six  years,  the  fundamental  opera- 
tions— addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division 
of  whole  numbers  and  simple  fractions,  both  common  and 
decimal  should  be  emphasized  together  with  percentage 
and  its  simplest  applications  to  interest. '  '10 

In  the  matter  of  reading,  pupils  are  often  taught  to 
read  from  a  reader,  but  the  inculcation  of  a  love  and 


8.  Cubberly,   E.   P.  EUEAL  LIFE   AND   EDUCATION,  New   York, 
1914,  p.  265. 

9.  Health  Education,  No.  9,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  4. 

10.  MeMurry,    Frank    M.,   Elementary   School   Standards,   1921,    New- 
York,  p.  167. 


70        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

appreciation  of  good  literature  is  sadly  lacking.  The 
rural  school  should  not  only  afford  a  knowledge  of  read- 
ing but  endeavor  to  instill  into  the  pupil  habits  and  ap- 
preciations of  good  literature. 

A  new  conception  of  the  aim  of  geography  is  needed 
if  it  is  to  meet  the  demands  of  rural  life.  * i  Thirty  years 
ago  geography  was  eminently  the  ' science  of  location.7 
Countries  were  bounded,  mountain  systems  and  rivers 
were  traced,  and  cities  were  located,  without  limit.  Maps 
and  map  drawing  were  resorted  to  in  almost  every  recita- 
tion as  one  means  of  reviewing  and  fixing  position,  and 
drills  on  such  facts  were  as  prominent  as  drills  in  spel- 
ling. The  highest  aim  was  the  vivid  picturing  of  the 
earth's  surface,  or,  better,  of  maps;  and  as  everything 
was  conceived  of  as  in  a  fixed  status,  'static  geography ' 
was  the  only  kind  known. ' '  u 

Geography  should  show  the  interdependence  of  man 
on  his  fellowman  and  how  commodities  of  life  are  inter- 
changed. In  rural  schools,  the  beginning  should  be  made 
in  home  geography,  a  study  of  local  environment  and 
earth  controls.  This  will  form  a  basis  for  a  study  of 
distant  countries.  Geography  is  very  apt  to  become  a 
book  subject  unless  it  is  related  to  home  environment  and 
correlated  with  other  branches  of  the  curriculum,  especi- 
ally history,  nature  study  and  agriculture. 

The  aim  of  history  teaching,  both  in  city  and  country 
schools  is  unquestionably  the  same,  to  develop  intelli- 
gent patriotism  and  responsible  citizenship.  Too  often, 
however,  the  child  leaves  school  with  the  idea  that  his- 
tory is  a  mere  collection  of  dates,  and  of  wars  through 
which  his  country  has  passed.  To  participate  intelli- 
gently in  the  political  and  civic  enterprises  of  the 
country,  the  individual  should  not  only  have  a  knowledge 
of  military  events  but  also  an  understanding  of  the  eco- 


11.  IUd.  p.  137. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        71 

nomic  and  social  developments  which  his  native  country 
has  experienced.  The  misunderstanding  and  lack  of  ap- 
preciation of  American  ideals  are  due  to  the  false  inter- 
pretation that  the  child  receives  in  school.  The  indi- 
vidual completing  the  elementary  course  in  a  rural  school 
remains  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural expansion  of  the  United  States,  although  he 
has  a  few  isolated  facts  of  history,  usually  of  a  military 
character  that  have  no  influence  over  his  conduct  to- 
ward his  f  ellowman  and  society.  The  citizen  of  tomorrow 
should  not  only  have  a  knowledge  of  his  nation's  wars 
and  military  leaders  but  also  a  knowledge  of  the  struggles 
waged  against  physical  forces  and  an  acquaintance  with 
the  leaders  in  other  lines  of  activity,  men  who  have  built 
up  the  industries  and  who  have  produced  our  art  and 
literature.  As  a  complement  to  history,  civics  should  re- 
ceive special  attention  in  the  rural  school.  The  memori- 
zation of  the  United  States  Constitution  and  other 
civic  facts  will  not  contribute  to  good  citizenship  unless 
it  is  bound  up  with  real  life.  Rural  communities  in 
many  instances  suffer  from  the  lack  of  government; 
health  inspection  is  neglected  and  the  only  police  protec- 
tion rural  people  have  is  represented  by  the  district 
sheriff,  which  has  proven  to  be  quite  inefficient.  "  Rural 
America  needs  government  to  make  it  physically  whole- 
some and  healthful ;  to  protect  it  from  the  social  vice 
which  finds  in  the  rural  community's  unprotected  con- 
dition, an  opportunity  to  debauch  the  unsuspecting 
youth ;  to  give  efficiency  and  economy  in  the  management 
of  its  schools;  the  construction  and  upkeep  of  its  high- 
ways; and  in  the  organization  of  its  quasi-public  social- 
economic  institutions  and  organizations."^ 

Music  in  many  rural  schools  is  yet  unknown  and 
where  it  does  enter  into  the  course  of  study  it  is  limited 


12.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  Eural  Teacher  and  his  Work,  New  York,  1917, 
257. 


72        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

to  a  few  songs  learned  in  rote  fashion.  The  tastes  and 
appreciations  of  American  people  in  regard  to  music 
stand  in  need  of  much  improvement  and  if  the  rural 
schools  are  to  take  cognizance  of  the  finer  and  higher 
things  of  life,  the  proper  appreciation  of  music  must  be 
insisted  upon.  ' '  Thru  music,  love  of  God  and  f ellowman 
may  be  made  to  dominate  the  emotions  and  passions  of 
youth  and  home  may  be  made  a  center  from  which  joy 
and  culture  will  radiate  into  a  larger  social  circle.  "19 

In  the  teaching  of  two  subjects,  nature  study  and 
elementary  agriculture,  the  rural  school  possesses 
advantages  over  schools  in  the  city.  Nature  study  ought 
to  find  a  place  in  every  curriculum,  because  there  are 
ample  opportunities  for  correlation  with  other  subjects, 
geography,  history,  elementary  science  and  elementary 
agriculture.  Moreover  in  the  Catholic  school  this  study 
takes  on  a  new  meaning.  It  should  "lead  the  pupils  to 
behold  and  admire  in  the  visible  creation,  the  wisdom, 
the  goodness,  and  providence  of  God  for  His  creatures 
and  the  duty  of  being  kind  to  dumb  animals. ' '  In  a  word, 
every  object  of  creation  speaks  to  the  child  of  an  all 
powerful  and  provident  God  and  the  little  country  child 
should 

' i  Find  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  running  brooks 
Sermons  in  stones  and  good  in  everything." 
The  child  raised  in  the  open  country  has  lived  in  the 
very  heart  of  nature,  and  often  he  has  remained  a 
stranger  to  its  beauties.  He  is  prone  to  judge  nature  by 
a  commercial  and  industrial  standard  rather  than  to 
love  nature  for  its  own  sake.  To  change  this  miscon- 
ception the  school  is  called  upon  to  develop  in  the  pupil 
a  love  and  an  understanding  of  nature  and  her  laws  and 
an  appreciation  of  her  beauties.  Viewing  nature  study 
from  a  purely  pedagogical  standpoint,  it  is  replete  with 
educational  opportunities.  The  country  child  is  intim- 

13.  Shields,  T.  E.,  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  241. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        73 

ately  associated  with  nature,  he  sees  the  green  fields, 
the  rivers,  the  birds  and  animals;  using  this  mass  of 
information  as  an  apperceptive  basis,  the  teacher  can 
begin  with  nature  study  proper.  Nature  study  and 
agriculture  are  intimately  associated  and  no  school  offers 
such  excellent  opportunity  for  efficient  instruction  in 
these  branches  as  do  our  rural  and  village  schools.  From 
the  beginning,  nature  study  should  involve  experimental 
gardening  on  the  school  grounds ;  this  necessitates  the 
use  of  a  school  garden  where  projects  can  be  worked  out 
under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher.  The  study  of 
agriculture  should  not  begin  earlier  than  the  sixth  grade 
and  not  later  than  the  seventh,  because  if  introduced 
earlier  it  is  very  apt  to  take  on  vocational  aspects  and 
the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum  will  suffer  in 
consequence.  This  subject  like  nature  study  has  an 
intimate  connection  with  and  relation  to  the  world  in 
which  the  country  child  lives.  Beginning  with  a  study 
of  the  soil,  its  composition,  cultivation  and  fertility; 
plant  life  and  seeds,  their  selection,  tillage  conditions 
and  testing  and  the  diseases  that  are  common  to  plants, 
it  can  lead  up  to  and  include  a  study  of  the  insect,  bird 
and  animal  life  of  the  community.  Elementary  agricul- 
ture as  a  branch  of  the  curriculum  can  easily  become  a 
book  subject,  if  the  teacher  confines  herself  to  a  text.  To 
escape  formalism,  it  must  be  made  a  living  subject.  This 
will  mean  that  most  of  the  work  is  to  be  done  out-of- 
doors  where  the  pupils  work  with  real  soil  and  where 
they  select,  plant  and  cultivate  and  finally  assist  in  the 
harvest  of  the  grain  or  seeds.  To  carry  out  projects 
in  a  study  of  livestock,  a  nearby  farm  might  be  visited 
and  there  the  varieties  of  animals  could  be  explained, 
altho  in  most  cases,  excursions  of  this  nature  are  unnec- 
essary as  the  children  are  already  acquainted  with  the 
various  kinds  of  farm  animals. 


74        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

Nature  study  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  will 
naturally  diverge  for  the  two  sexes  and  instruction  that 
has  reference  to  the  domestic  duties  of  the  present  rural 
home  should  be  offered  the  girls.  Besides  the  general 
work  of  school  gardening  and  nature  study,  the  girl 
should  be  given  instruction  in  the  household  arts,  house- 
hold or  domestic  management,  clothing  and  textiles  and 
also  household  decoration. 

In  the  Catholic  rural  school,  the  study  of  religion 
must  always  remain  the  center  of  the  curriculum,  around 
which  the  other  branches  should  be  organized  and  from 
which  they  draw  their  energy  and  power.  The  child  in 
the  open  country,  as  in  the  city,  must  learn  to  know  God 
and  the  first  duty  of  the  Catholic  rural  school  is  to  teach 
Jesus  Christ  and  His  mission  on  earth  and  to  bring  the 
individual's  conduct  into  harmony  with  the  ideal  set  by 
Christ.  Modern  education  is  profoundly  secular  although 
protagonists  of  the  modern  school  are  -wont  to  speak 
of  religion,  but  religion  to  them  is  social  service.14  When 
they  speak  of  religion,  they  do  not  include  the  idea  of  a 
personal  relation  between  the  individual  and  his  Creator. 
' '  The  evangelical  notion  of  religion  as  a  purely  personal 
relation  between  God  and  the  soul,  setting  man  apart 
from  his  fellows,  is  widely  regarded  as  an  exploded 
fiction.  Religion  is  now  seen  to  be  a  social  growth,  like 
speech.  It  roots  itself  in  social  relationships  and 
expresses  itself  therein.  If  it  is  of  worth  it  must  make 
such  relationships  easier  not  harder,  and  must  enrich, 
not  impoverish  them."15 

If  the  curriculum  is  to  meet  present  needs  it  must 
make  provision  for  religious  instruction  as  one  of  the 
fundamental  demands  of  rural  society.  In  a  previous 
chapter  we  dwelt  on  the  bankruptcy  of  the  country 


14.  Bobbit,  F.,  The  Curriculum,  p.  166. 

15.  McGiffert,  A.  C.,  The  Eise  of  Modern  Eeligious  Ideas,  N.  Y.  1915, 
p.  273. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        75 

irhurch  and  the  solution  for  the  problem  from  the 
Catholic  viewpoint  is  the  Catholic  rural  school  wherein 
religion  is  taught.  Rural  sociologists  and  economists 
are  clamoring  for  a  panacea  for  the  evils  that  are 
menacing  the  American  farmer.  Their  slogan  is  "com- 
munity service"  or  " cooperation "  but  they  neglect  the 
very  element  that  is  fundamental  in  Christian  society, 
Faith  in  Jesus  Christ  and  His  Mission  on  earth.  This 
element  forms  the  basis  of  every  obligation  and  duty 
and  obliges  the  individual  to  regard  his  neighbor  as  his 
brother  in  Christ.  Religion  is  disappearing  from  rural 
districts  and  the  rehabilitation  of  the  country  is  possible 
only  thru  the  reintroduction  of  the  teachings  of  Christ. 
The  most  efficient  means  that  the  Catholic  church  has  at 
Her  disposal  is  the  school  and  if  She  wishes  to  establish 
and  maintain  on  "the  land  a  sufficient  population, 
effective  and  prosperous  in  production,  and  happy  and 
content  by  reason  of  a  highly  developed  social  and 
cultural  status,"  the  beginning  is  to  be  made  thru  the 
Catholic  rural  school  with  a  course  of  study  that  meets 
the  needs  of  country  children  and  offers  them  an 
education  that  modern  American  life  demands. 


76        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 


CHAPTER  VI 

EXAMPLES  OF  CATHOLIC  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

This  chapter  will  be  merely  illustrative  and  descrip- 
tive, its  purpose  being  to  present  a  few  examples  of 
Catholic  rural  educational  effort.  Obviously,  no  attempt 
can  be  made  here  to  describe  more  than  a  few  typical 
examples  and  it  is  not  claimed  that  the  examples  enumer- 
ated represent  the  best  efforts  of  Catholics  in  behalf  of 
rural  education.  They  are  typical,  however,  and  illus- 
trate what  may  be  done  in  meeting  the  rural  problem 
from  a  Catholic  educational  viewpoint. 

I.  ST.  MARY'S  SCHOOL,  TONTITOWN,  ARKANSAS,  DIOCESE 
OF  LITTLE  ROCK 

This  school  is  located  in  the  midst  of  an  Italian 
immigrant  community  at  Tontitown,  Arkansas.  Thirty 
years  ago  the  locality  was  a  veritable  wilderness;  only 
a  small  portion  of  the  land  was  cultivated  and  the 
community  was  unprogressive.  The  future  prospects 
for  this  colony  of  immigrants  were  far  from  bright. 
Without  church  or  school  facilities  the  religious,  social 
and  economic  life  of  the  inhabitants  was  at  a  low  ebb. 
Today  the  community  is  prosperous,  progressive  and  is 
one  of  the  most  successful  farming  districts  in  the 
Southwest.1  The  changed  character  of  this  settlement 
is  due  to  the  zeal  of  an  Italian  priest,  Father  Pietro 
Bandini,  who  erected  the  first  church  and  school  in 
Tontitown.  Newell  Sims  in  his  work  "The  Rural 
Community "  describes  the  community  in  the  following 
words:  "On  entering  Tontitown  from  Springdale  the 
first  building  that  comes  into  vfcew,  standing  out  prom- 

1.  Reports  of  the  Immigration  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol.  I, 
p.  567. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        77 

inently  among  the  farms,  is  the  new  parochial  school; 
the  next  is  the  parish  house,  set  in  a  garden  of  flowers, 
and  a  short  distance  away  is  the  Catholic  church.  These 
three  buildings  were  erected  by  the  Italian  settlers.  The 
church  is  already  too  small  to  hold  the  rapidly  growing 
congregation  and  plans  are  now  under  way  to  remodel 
and  enlarge  it."* 

Father  Bandini  realizing  the  need  of  a  school, 
opened  one  in  1898.  This  building  proved  too  small  for 
the  community  and  a  new  school  was  erected  in  1908. 
The  present  building  ha&  ten  rooms,  furnished  through- 
out with  modern  equipment  and  is  one  of  the  best  schools 
in  State  of  Arkansas.15  The  teachers  belong  to  the 
Ursuline  Order,  whose  Motherhouse  is  located  in  St. 
Louis,  Missouri.  In  1921  the  school  enrolled  107  pupils/ 

The  complete  change  of  the  social,  political  and 
economic  life  of  this  community  is,  according  to  Sims,  due 
to  the  presence  of  an  energetic  Catholic  priest  and  the 
Catholic  school.  "In  fine,  the  one  fact  that  stands  out 
clearly  in  the  development  and  progress  of  this  colony 
and  in  contrast  to  several  others  studied  is  the  efficient 
and  intelligent  leadership  which  it  has  enjoyed.  Perhaps 
no  Italian  colony  similarly  situated  has  made  more  rapid 
or  surer  material,  educational,  political  advancement.  A 
leader  who  knows  both  his  own  people  and  Americans; 
who  has  vision  as  well  as  sound  business  sense ;  who  has 
secured  and  can  retain  the  confidence  of  his  followers; 
who  desires  to  develop  a  true  Americanism  and  to  inspire 
and  instill  the  love  of  the  highest  moral,  educational  and 
political  ideals  of  American  life  in  the  foreign  born,  is 
worth  a  score  of  years  in  the  progress  of  a  newly  estab- 
lished colony.  The  training  of  such  leaders  to  protect 

2.  Sims,  Newell,  The  Rural  Community,  New  York,  1920,  p.  179. 

3.  lUd.  181. 

4.  Ryan,  James  A.,  Catholic  Directory  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  1921. 


78        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

and  teach  these  children  in  American  life  and  ideals  is  a 
matter  worthy  of  at  least  as  much  attention  by  the  body 
politic  as  the  establishment  of  schools  for  the  civic 
training  of  the  children  in  years.  The  history  of  Tonti- 
town  bears  witness  to  the  value  of  such  leadership  and 
such  teaching."5 

II.  HOLY  CROSS  SCHOOL,  BUENA  VISTA,  IOWA, 
ARCHDIOCESE  OF  DUBUQUE 

A  course  in  Nature  Study 

Nature  'Study  in  this  school  is  begun  m  the  primary 
grades  and  extends  thru  all  the  elementary  grades.  In 
the  higher  grades  it  embraces  a  study  of  agriculture 
proper.  In  the  first  grade  the  pupils  study  the  bird  life 
of  the  community  including  the  economic  and  aesthetic 
value  of  birds  in  general.  A  study  of  the  flora  of  the 
surrounding  country  follows ;  the  children  are  taught  how 
to  appreciate  flowers  and  to  distinguish  between  the 
beneficial  and  noxious  types.  The  children  are  taught 
how  to  select  and  test  seed  grain;  what  kind  of  grain  is 
best  for  the  community.  Then  follows  a  study  of  the  soil ; 
how  to  test  and  what  substances  are  necessary  if  the 
soil  is  found  to  be  sour  or  depleted.  In  the  study  of 
seeds  and  soil  the  children  are  asked  to  observe  the 
various  farms  in  the  neighborhood  and  note  the  deficien- 
cies they  find  there.  They  are  also  told  to  ask  their 
parents  what  remedies  they  employ  when  the  soil  is 
deficient. 

The  children  bring  the  monthly  cream  checks  to 
school  and  comparisons  are  made  as  to  the  per  cent  of 
butter  fat  obtained  from  the  various  types  of  dairy 
cattle.  This  necessitates  a  certain  amount  of  elementary 
bookkeeping  on  the  part  of  the  children  but  the  children 
enjoy  the  work  and  manifest  great  interest  in  it. 

5.  Sims,  Newell,  The  Rural  Community,  New  York,  1920,  p.  181. 


The  Enrol  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        79 

In  the  Spring  a  project  is  given  the  entire  school, 
the  subject  being  a  "hot  bed."  The  boys  do  the  necessary 
planning  and  construction  and  find  out  whether  or  not 
the  soil  is  in  need  of  fertilizer.  The  girls  test  the  seed 
and  plant  it.  This  project  evoked  great  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  and  many  of  them  started  like  work 
at  home,  thus  carrying  out  in  real  life  what  they  have 
learned  in  school. 

In  the  Spring  the  pupils  of  the  seventh  grade  were 
given  various  projects;  vegetable  gardens;  caring  for 
poultry;  preserving  fruit;  etc.  "Each  child  must  keep 
a  diary  of  his  own  project  and  report  on  it  when  school 
reopens  in  September.  The  diaries  of  the  children  are 
then  collected  and  formed  into  an  '  agricultural  booklet ' 
which  forms  part  of  the  school  exhibit  at  the  County 
Fair."* 

Reports  from  this  school  indicate  that  the  course  in 
Nature  Study  links  up  the  home  life  of  the  pupils  with 
their  school  experiences.  The  use  of  a  text  book  is 
advised  but  most  of  the  work  depends  on  the  initiative 
of  the  teacher. 

III.  ST.  CAMILLUS  ACADEMY,  CORBIN,  KENTUCKY,  DIOCESE 

OF  COVINGTON 

A  Kentucky  Mow/ntain  Catholic  School 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  various  religious 
organizations  and  individuals  to  reach  the  adult  illiter- 
ates who  dwell  in  the  South  Atlantic  Highlands.  The 
introduction  of  "moonlight"  schools  in  many  sections  of 
the  South  has  contributed  in  a  large  mea&ure  to  the 
elimination  of  adult  illiteracy.7 

6.  Letter  to  Author. 

7.  Foght,  H.  W.,  The  Rural  Teacher  and  his  Work,  New  York,  1917, 
p.  209. 


80        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

The  work  of  the  denominational  schools  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Kentucky  is  likewise  accomplish- 
ing results  in  the  attempt  to  remove  illiteracy  among  the 
younger  members  of  the  population.  Notable  among 
these  educational  institutions  are  Berea  College;  'Sue 
Bennet  Memorial  College  at  London,  Kentucky ;  St.  Johns 
Industrial  School;  and  St.  Camillus  Academy,  which  is 
the  only  Catholic  school  in  the  mountain  regions.  Corbin, 
Kentucky  is  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  close  to 
the  Tennessee  border.  Until  to  a  few  years  ago,  the. 
Catholic  people  had  little  opportunity  to  practice  their 
religion  due  to  the  absence  of  a  priest.  The  opening  of 
the  mines  in  this  section  brought  in  a  number  of  Catholic 
immigrants  and  the  only  educational  opportunities,  in 
many  cases,  were  the  denominational  schools,  wherein 
many  children  lost  their  faith.  It  is  a  repetition  of  the 
early  pioneer  days  when  the  Irish  immigrants  came 
through  the  Cumberland  Gap  from  Virginia  to  settle  in 
the  Kentucky  mountains ;  they  had  no  priest  to  minister 
to  them  and  no  schools  for  their  children  and  thus  they 
fell  away  and  their  descendants  today  are  without  the 
Faith. 

Father  Ambrose  Reger,  0.  S.  B.,  travelling  thru 
these  regions  and  ministering  to  the  scattered  Catholics, 
saw  the  necessity  of  a  Catholic  school  and  left  no  stone 
unturned  until  the  school  became  a  reality.  In  1902, 
Corbin  numbered  300  people;  amongst  this  number  he 
found  12  Catholic  families.  With  this  as  a  nucleus,  he 
opened  a  school,  engaging  a  laywoman  as  a  teacher.  The 
first  year's  enrollment  averaged  22  pupils.  In  1908  the 
Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  from  Newport,  Kentucky, 
took  charge  of  the  school.  The  Sisters  did  not  confine 
their  activities  to  the  classroom  but  went  about  the 
community  improving  home  and  living  conditions  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  school  grew  so  rapidly  that  new 
quarters  were  necessary  and  in  1915  a  new  building  was 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        81 

erected.  At  the  present  time,  St.  Camillas  has  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  .efficient  school  in  that  part 
of  the  State.  The  present  enrollment  numbers  about  165 
pupils,  30  of  whom  are  boarders.  "  Among  the  boarders, 
Germans,  Hungarians,  Italians  and  'Syrians  find  room 
beside  their  native  Kentuckian  or  Virginian  sisters.  As 
a  civilizer,  St.  Camillus  does  all  that  a  high-class  school 
can  accomplish.  Its  departments  are  conducted  by 
cultured  and  experienced  educators,  who  evince  the 
utmost  zeal  and  conscientious  care  in  their  work.  The 
children  are  not  only  instructed  in  the  ordinary  branches, 
but  an  earnest  effort  is  made  to  impress  upon  them  from 
the  beginning  respect  for  authority  and  love  of  truth 
and  honesty.  They  are  taught  the  value  and  nobility  of 
work  and  domestic  science  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  training.  Travellers  and  investigators  who  have  had 
occasion  to  observe  the  hovels  of  many  mountaineers 
and  the  distressingly  slovenly  ' shacks7  of  the  coal  miners, 
will  realize  what  the  home-making  courses  at  St.  Camillus 
will  mean  to  the  next  generation  of  mountaineers.  Hence 
the  girls  are  taught  to  mend  their  clothes,  to  care  for  a 
home,  and  while  music  and  art  are  by  no  means  neglected 
at  St.  Camillus,  the  Sisters  realize  that  here  the  home- 
making  courses  are  not  a  'fad'  but  a  necessity.  This  is 
assuredly  ' social  work'  of  the  best  type."5 

IV.  ST.  MARY'S  SCHOOL,  SALEM,  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 
DIOCESE  OF  Sioux  FALLS 

A   Catholic  Boarding  School 

One  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  Catholic  rural 
education  is  the  financial  support  in  a  parish  where  the 
number  of  Catholic  families  is  quite  small  or  where  they 
are  distributed  over  a  wide  area.  Reverend  B.  Weber  of 
Salem,  South  Dakota,  in  the  Sioux  Falls  diocese  has 


8.  Reger,  Ambrose,  America  Press,  New  York.  November  26,  1921,  p. 
141. 


82        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

apparently  solved  this  problem.  There  are  about  135 
families  in  this  parish,  two-thirds  of  whom  are  farmers 
and  many  of  whom  live  eight  and  ten  miles  from  town. 
When  the  parochial  school  was  erected,  those  residing  at 
a  distance  did  not  feel  they  were  obliged  to  render 
assistance,  inasmuch  as  it  was  impossible  for  them  to 
send  their  children  to  school.  The  pastor  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  promise  of  those  members  of  the  parish 
to  support  the  project  by  donating  food  stuffs  which  they 
produced  on  their  farms.  In  return  he  promised  to 
"give  their  children  board,  including  lodging  for  four 
cents  per  meal."5  The  parochial  school  originally 
furnished  accommodations  for  fifty  boarders  but  after  a 
few  years  a  building  was  erected  that  accommodated  one 
hundred  and  twenty  children.  The  farmers  bring  their 
children  to  school  on  Monday  morning  and  the  pupils 
return  home  Friday  afternoon.  The  success  of  this  school 
caused  a  member  of  the  parish  to  donate  a  farm  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres;  the  proceeds  of  which  go  to- 
ward the  upkeep  of  the  school.  In  1912  another  farm 
was  purchased  which  supplies  the  necessary  staple  prod- 
ucts to  the  boarding  school.  "Other  parishioners 
remembered  the  boarding  school  in  their  last  will,  so  that, 
with  God's  help  the  four  cent  meal  system  is  guaranteed 
for  all  future  times.  Let  it  be  said  that  at  no  time  has 
the  four  cent  meal  system  met  with  a  loss.  Boarders 
from  outside  the  parish  are  admitted  at  the  low  rate 
of  eight  dollars  per  month. '  '10  There  are  many  schools  of 
this  type  throughout  the  Sioux  Falls  diocese  and  reports 
indicate  that  they  meet,  with  success  wherever  they 
receive  fair  trial. 


9.  Peschong.  L..  The  Salesianum.  Milwaukee,  January,  1916    D.  2. 

10.  Ibid.  p.  3. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        83 


CONCLUSION 

The  preceding  discussion  suggests  certain  working 
principles  that  may  indicate  the  procedure  of  Catholic 
educators  in  attempting  to  meet  the  Rural  Problem  from 
an  educational  viewpoint. 

I.  The  Catholic  church  through  its  leaders  is  called 
to  rural  leadership  and  the  rural  clergy  must  be  made 
aware   of  the   vast   opportunities   that  lie  dormant  in 
country  districts. 

II.  The  erection  and  maintenance  of  a  system  of 
schools  is  paramount  for  the  material  and  spiritual  well 
being  of  Catholics  residing  in  rural  communities.    This 
is  possible  only  through  a  systematic  organization  of 
educational  resources  on  the  part  of  the  Church  authori- 
ties. 

III.  An  adequate  system  of  supervision  is  essential 
in  order  that  the  school  afford  effective  instruction  to 
the  child. 

IV.  The  teachers  employed  must  be  duly  qualified 
and  prepared  especially  for  their  work.  This  necessitates 
the  erection  and  support  of  diocesan  or  provincial  normal 
schools. 

V.  The  curriculum  employed  must  take  cognizance 
of  rural  needs  and  should  reflect  all  the  aims  of  life: 
Health ;  Practical  Efficiency ;  Citizenship ;  Recreation  and 
the  highest  aim,  Religion. 

In  conclusion  we  maintain  that  any  attempt  to  solve 
the  Rural  Problem  must  of  necessity  take  into  consider- 


84        The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School 

ation  the  function  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  Catholic 
School.  These  two  institutions  are  fundamental,  because 
in  last  analysis,  the  rural  problem  is  a  moral  problem 
that  has  an  intimate  relationship  with  the  spiritual 
nature  of  man. 

The  economic  and  social  status  of  the  farmer  is  in 
dire  need  of  improvement  but  the  mere  amelioration  of 
economic  and  social  conditions  will  have  little  effect 
unless  they  are  reinforced  by  a  Christian  view  of  life 
and  Christian  institutions. 


The  Rural  Problem  and  the  Catholic  School        85 

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VITA 

T.  Leo  Keaveny  was  born  at  Hereford,  Minnesota, 
August  23,  1894.  His  early  studies  were  pursued  in  the 
public  schools  at  Tintah,  Minnesota,  and  his  high  school 
and  junior  college  courses  at  St.  Lawrence  College,  Mt. 
Calvary,  Wis.  In  September,  1914,  he  entered  the  St. 
Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota.  Ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1919,  he  matriculated  at  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity and  received  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in 
June,  1920.  At  the  Catholic  University  he  pursued 
courses  in  Education  under  the  late  Very  Rev.  Thomas 
E.  •Shields,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.;  Very  Rev.  P.  J.  McCormick, 
S.  T.  L.,  Ph.  D.;  Rev.  Edward  Jordan,  S.  T.  D.,  and  Rev. 
Leo  Ligouri  McVay,  S.  T.  B.,  J.  C.  L. ;  in  Psychology  un- 
der Very  Rev.  Edward  A.  Pace,  S.  T.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
and  Rev.  Thomas  Vernon  Moore,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D. ;  in 
Sociology  under  Rev.  William  Kerby,  S.  T.  L.,  Ph.  D., 
LL.  D. ;  and  Biology  under  John  Bernard  Parker,  A.  M. 
Ph.  D.  During  the  summer  of  1920  he  attended  the 
Fordham  Graduate  School  of  Education  and  during  the 
summer  of  1921  he  made  studies  at  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York. 

The  writer  welcomes  this  opportunity  to  express  his 
gratitude  to  these  professors  and  especially  to  Dr.  Mc- 
Cormick, Dr.  Jordan  and  Dr.  Kerby  for  valuable  aid  and 
suggestions  in  the  revision  of  the  manuscript.  He  like- 
wise wishes  to  thank  the  Very  Rev.  Edwin  V.  0  'Hara  of 
Lane  County,  Oregon  and  Dr.  J.  C.  Muerman  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  for  assistance  in  the 
gathering  of  material  used  in  this  study. 


